VARIETAL SCENARIO OF PULSES

VARIETAL SCENARIO OF PULSES
IN TAMIL NADU
Dr.K.Mohanasundaram*
Pulses are very well known for their protein source. Currently protein famine is threatening the developing and under developed countries. According to FAO/WHO's recommendation a minimum of 85 g. of pulses per capita per day is required. Protein availability in Tamil Nadu as against the recommendation is very low to a meagre level of 36.5g. The major pulses in Tamil Nadu are redgram, blackgram, greengram, bengalgram, horsegram, cowpea, soybean and lab lab. Annually these crops are grown on an area of 8-9 lakh hectares producing 4.51 lakh tonnes of pulses with a productivity of 454 kg/ha against the national average of 607 kg/ha. Tamil Nadu ranks 10th in terms of area and 11th in terms of production at all India level. Since the annual requirement of pulses for our state is 11 lakh tonnes, the balance is being met from the neighbouring states, hence, the area under pulses should be increased with high yielding varieties in order to produce more to attain self sufficiency in pulse production.
Area production and productivity of pulse crops in Tamil Nadu
It is evident that the area under pulses has been increased during the period and the productivity has also been increased from 320 kg/ha to 450 kg/ha (Table 1). The increase in productivity is attributed to the combined effect of improved crop varieties with efficient crop management practices.
Table 1. Total area, production and productivity of pulses in Tamil Nadu
Years
Area in L.Ha
Production L.MT.
Productivity Kg/ha
1979-80
6.06
1.95
322
1980-81
5.44
1.76
324
1981-82
5.58
1.89
337
1982-83
4.93
1.89
383
1983-84
6.03
2.22
367
1984-85
6.18
2.49
403
1985-86
5.82
2.75
473
1986-87
6.89
3.12
453
* Professor and Head, NPRC, Vamban
1992-93
7.39
464
1993-94
6.90
2.76
401
1994-95
6.91
3.40
492
1995-96
9.61
3.59
374
1996-97
9.53
4.10
430
1997-98
8.05*
3.40*
422*
1998-99
8.14*
3.52*
432*
* Estimated
Area production and productivity of major pulses in Tamil Nadu
Among the different pulse crops grown blackgram occupies the major area followed by greengram and redgram (Table 2). By adopting improved method of technology like improved variety, optimum time of sowing, plant population, suitable rhizobial inoculation, fertilizer application, timely weed management practices, need based plant protection measures coupled with proper irrigation schedule would definitely increase the yield of pulses.
Table 2. Area, Production and Productivity of Pulses in Tamil Nadu
Crops
Area L. Ha
Production L.MT.
Productivity Kg/ha
Blackgram
3.67
1.43
390
Greengram
1.63
0.78
480
Redgram
1.41
1.22
864
Horsegram
1.23
0.54
431
Bengalgram
0.09
0.05
625
Other pulses
1.50
0.25
164
The principal pulse crops which occupy major area and localised in cultivation in different agro climatic zones of Tamil Nadu is furnished below:
Table 3. Pulses under different Agroclimatic Zones
Sl.No.
Agroclimatic zones
Districts
Predominant pulse crops
1987-88
6.35
2.83
451
1988-89
6.25
2.48
397
1989-90
3.34
407
1990-91
3.59
424
1991-92
3.51
453
8.21
8.47
7.76
3.43
1.
North Eastern Zone
Chengai MGR
Thiruvannamalai
South Arcot
Blackgram, Redgram, Greengram & Horsegram
2.
North Western Zone
Salem
Dharmapuri
Redgram, Lab lab, Horsegram and Other pulses
3.
Western zone
Coimbatore
Erode
Lab lab, Horsegram, Blackgram Greengram, Bengalgram, Redgram & Other pulses
4.
Cauvery Delta zone
Thanjavur, Trichy, Pudukkottai
Blackgram, Greengram Redgram, Lab lab
5.
Southern zone
Madurai, Virudhunagar, Sivagangai,Ramnad, Tirunelveli, Thoothukudi
Blackgram, Horsegram, Redgram, Lablab, Greengram
6.
High rainfall zone
Kanyakumari
Blackgram & Other pulses
Pulses varieties recommended for Kharif / Rabi cultivation for different Agro climatic zones:
Table 4. Important pulses varieties for different seasons
Sl.No.
Zones
Redgram
Blackgram
Greengram
Cowpea
1.
North eastern
SA 1
CO 6
Vamban 2
Vamban 1
APK 1
CO 5
T 9
VBN 1
Vamban 2
Vamban 3
CO 4
CO 5
KM 2
Vamban 1
CO 6
C 152
Vamban 1
Vamban 2
2.
North western
SA 1
CO 6
Vamban 2
Vamban 1
APK 1
CO 5
T 9
Vamban 1
TMV 1
CO 5
KM 2
CO 6
Paiyur 1
C 152
Vamban 1
Vamban 2
3.
Western
SA 1
CO 6
CO 5
Vamban 1
Vamban 2
APK 1
CO 5
Vamban 1
Vamban 2
Vamban 3
CO 4
CO 5
KM 2
CO 6
Paiyur 1
C 152
Vamban 1
Vamban 2
CO 6
4.
Cauvery Delta
CO 5
ADT 3
ADT 4
ADT 5
ADT 2
ADT 3
-
5.
Southern zone
Co 5
VBN1, VBN2, APK 1
CO 5
VBN 1
T 9 VBN 2
VBN 3
CO 5
CO 4
KM 2
VBN 1
Paiyur 1
C 152
Vamban 1
Vamban 2
CO 6
Table 5. Varietal details of Redgram, Blackgaram, Greengram, Cowpea,
Horsegram, Bengalgram and Soybean
S.N.
Variety
Year of
Duration
Yield kg/ha
Special
Area of
release
(days)
character
ristics
adaptation
Rain
fed
Irri-gated
REDGRAM
1.
Vamban 2
1999
180
1050
-
Resistant to sterility mosaic disease. Suitable as a rainfed crop in mixed and intercropping situations to replace SA 1 and CO 6
Entire Tamil Nadu
2.
CO 5
1985
120-130
800
1500
Photoinsen
sitive moderately resistant to podfly, root rot sterility mosaic disease
Entire Tamil Nadu
3.
Vamban 1
1992
95-100
840
1200
Highly suitable for intercropping in groundnut
Vellore, Tiruvannamalai, Pudukkottai, Madurai, Sivagangai, Tirunelveli, Virudhunagar, Theni, Ramanathapuram
4.
Aruppuk-
kottai
(APK 1)
1999
95-105
900
1250
Suitable for a pure crop in irigated conditions. Resistant to SMD
Virudhunagar,
Ramanathapuram, Sivagangai,
Madurai, Theni, Tuticorin, Tirunelveli, Trichy, Salem, Dharmapuri, Coimbatore.
5.
COPH 2
1997
120-130
1050
1350
Suitable as a pure crop in irrigated conditions and rainfed situations also. Good. Synchro-nisation of flowers in male and female parents in hybrid for seed production and resistant to SMD
Coimbatore, Erode, Salem, Dharmapuri, Vellore, Tiruvannamalai, Trichy
BLACKGRAM
6.
CO 5
1981
70-75
750
1250
Moderately resistant to powdery mildew, leaf crinkle, pod borer and tip blight but susceptible to YMV
Coimbatore, Erode, Salem, Dharmapuri, Vellore, Tiruvannamalai
7.
Vamban 1
1987
65
780
900
High yielding and resistant to YMV. Suitable for both irrigated and rainfed conditions
Ramnad, Pudukkottai, Tirunelveli, Vellore, Tiruvannamalai, Tuticorin, Madurai, Trichy.
8.
Vamban 2
1996
65
700
1100
Suitable for both rainfed & irrigated conditions.
Resistant to YMV
Ramnad, Pudukkottai, Tirunelveli, Vellore, Tiruvannamalai, Tuticorin, Madurai, Trichy.
9.
Vamban 3
2000
70
825
950
Suitable for both rainfed & irrigated conditions.
Resistant to YMV
Entire Tamil Nadu
10.
K1
1994
70-75
700
-
Suited to Southern districts. Suited for intercropping with cotton
Shouthern districts for intercropping with Cotton
GREENGRAM
11.
CO 6
1999
65-70
850
1300
Resistant to YMV. Suited to both rainfed and irrigated conditions
Entire Tamil Nadu
12.
Paiyur 1
1988
85-90
700
-
Suitable for rainfed conditions in Dharmapuri and Salem districts low incidence of YMV
Dharmapuri & Salem districts
13.
Vamban 1
1989
70
800
-
Suitable for rainfed conditions in Southern districts
Pudukkottai, Madurai, Trichy, Tirunelveli and Tuticorin.
14.
K 1
1998
70-75
700
-
Suitable for
Suitable for
Cotton based intercropping because of short duration and short stature
intercropping with Cotton in southern districts
COWPEA
15.
CO 4
1983
85
960
1570
Seed colour greenish brown. Suited for irrigated conditions. High yielding.
Coimbatore, Erode, Salem, Dharmapuri, Vellore and Tiruvannamalai.
16.
CO 6
1993
65-70
700
-
Highly suitable for rainfed conditions. Shortest duration. Resistant to rust disease. Seed colour light cream. Good marketability.
Coimbatore, Erode, Salem, Dharmapuri, Vellore and Tiruvannamalai.
17.
Paiyur 1
1985
90
750
-
Suited to rainfed condition of Dharmapuri and Salem districts
Suited to Dharmapuri and Salem districts.
18.
Vamban 1
1997
65
950
-
Suited to rainfed conditions. White grain.
Suited to Pudukkottai, Trichy, Madurai, Vellore and Tiruvannamalai.
19.
Vamban 2
1998
85
10.6 tons green pods
-
Vegetable types lengthy, Fleshy pods
Entire Tamil Nadu
20.
CO 2
1972
90
11.0 tons Green pods
-
Vegetable type, lengthy, fleshy pods
Entire Tamil Nadu
HORSEGRAM
21.
CO 1
1953
110
600
-
Suited to rainfed condition
Suited to Coimbatore and Erode districts
22.
Paiyur 1
1988
110
650
-
Suited to rainfed condition
Suited to Dharmapuri and Salem districts
23.
Paiyur 2
1998
105
870
-
High protein (19.25%) suited for Samai, Groundnut, Gingelly – Horsegram crop sequences in rainfed lands
Suited to Dharmapuri and Salem districts
BENGALGRAM
24.
CO 3
1986
85
1000
-
Tolerant to root
Suited to
rot and wilt
Coimbatore, Salem and Dharmapuri districts
25.
CO 4
1998
85
1150
-
Attractive Desi bold grains. 30-32 g. 100 seed weight and tolerant to root rot
Suited to Coimbatore, Salem and Dharmapuri districts
SOYBEAN
26.
CO 1
1980
85
-
1600
Erect, bushy determinate photoinsen
sitive
Entire Tamil Nadu
27.
CO 2
1995
75-80
-
1350
Photoinsen
sitive, Tolerant to YMV and leaf minor. Suited to intercropping.
Entire Tamil Nadu
28.
ADT 1
1990
85
-
1270 (rice
fallow)
Suitable for rice fallow situations where there is no terminal moisture stress and high temperature.
Suited to Tanjore, Tiruvarur, Nagapattinam, Cuddalore and Trichy.
RICE FALLOW PULSES
BLACKGRAM
29.
ADT 2
1979
70-75
600
-
Highest protein content (21.5%)
Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Trichy, Cuddalore, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin.
30.
ADT 3
1981
70-75
750
-
Suited for raising in field bunds
Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Trichy, Cuddalore, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin.
31.
ADT 4
1987
65-70
1000
-
Synchronised flowering and maturity and suited for bund cropping
Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Trichy, Cuddalore, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin.
32.
ADT 5
1988
70-75
1550 (irrigated summer)
-
Very high yielder. Flowering behaviour
Pudukkottai, Orthanad areas summer, kharif irrigated situations 2
according to moisture availability.
to 3 flushes.
GREENGRAM
33.
ADT 2
1982
70
800
-
Resistant to powdery mildew
Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Trichy, Cuddalore, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin.
34.
ADT 3
1988
70
850
-
Resistant to stemfly
Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Trichy, Cuddalore, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin.
In Tamil Nadu, Research on pulses improvement is being carried out in NPRC, Vamban, Pulses Research Station, Coimbatore, TRRI, Aduthurai, RRS, Paiyur, AC&RI, Killikulam and ARS, Kovilpatti and Pattukkottai. In crop improvement, 13 redgram varieties, 18 blackgram varieties, 17 greengram varieties, 9 cowpea varieties, 3 soybean varieties, 13 garden lab lab varieties, 2 field bean varieties, 4 bengal gram varieties and 3 horsegram varieties were released for cultivation upto 2001.
Table 6. Number of varieties released in different pulse crops in Tamil Nadu
Centres
Red
gram
Black
gram
Green
gram
Cow
pea
Horse
gram
Bengal
gram
Lab lab
Mochai
Soy
bean
Coimbatore
8*
5
6
5
1
4
13
2
2
Vamban
2
3
1
2
-
-
-
-
-
Aruppukkottai
1
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Bhavanisagar
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Salem
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Aduthurai
-
5
3
-
-
-
-
-
1
Tindivanam
-
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Kudimianmalai
-
2
2
1
-
-
-
-
-
Kovilpatti
-
1
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
Paiyur
-
-
1
1
2
-
-
-
-
Others
-
-
1
-
-
-
-
-
-
Total
13
18
15
9
3
4
13
2
3
80
N.B.: * Includes two hybrids
Due to the release of these varieties the cropping area and production of pulses has been increased in the state.
In redgram, under rainfed situation, sterility mosaic disease – resistant variety Vamban 2 can be utilised for maximum yield. Under irrigated
condition, short duration varieties Vamban 1 and APK 1 can be utilised as pure crop or intercrop with groundnut.
In blackgram, high yielding variety Vamban 3 may be recommended for cultivation under irrigated and rainfed situations. It is resistent to yellow mosaic disease. For summer irrigated situation ADT 5 blackgram is performing well with high yield potential.
For Greengram, the major problem is yellow mosaic disease. To overcome this situation YMV resistant variety CO 6 can be utilised for maximising yield without any loss. Under moderate situations, Vamban 1 greengram can be utilised which is tolerant to YMV. Under Rice fallow situations, ADT 3 can be grown for better results. K1 greengram is recommended for rainfed situation to southern districts.
In Cowpea, under rainfed situations, short duration varieties like Vamban 1 and CO 6 can be popularised. Under irrigated condition vegetable cowpea, CO 2 and Vamban 2 can be cultivated for green pods.
Erect and bushy varieties of Garden lab lab like CO 9, CO 10, CO 11, CO 12 and CO 13 can be cultivated throughout the year which gives different types of green pod with market fancy.
For rice fallow situation in blackgram the varieties like ADT 2, ADT 3 and ADT 4 and in greengram the varieties ADT 2 and ADT 3 and in soybean, the variety ADT 1 can be cultivated to obtain maximum yield.
DRYLAND TECHNIQUES FOR
PULSES PRODUCTIVITY
T. M. Thiyagarajan1 and T. N. Balasubramanian2
Pulses are the universal crops in the world like rice rated as one among the important crops because of their biological nitrogen fixing mechanism and inherited in-situ high protein contribution. Among the merits of these crops, rich diversity in germplasm, adaptability of a variety of edapho-climatic conditions and its flexibility to accommodate in any cropping system are need special mentioning. However, its productivity is far below compared to that of food cereal crops. In India even though it is cultivated over 1/5th of total cultivated area, its production is only 1/12th of total food production. Among the many reasons attributed for its lower productivity. Lower yield potential, cultivation in marginal lands, below average management efforts, non-availability of quality seeds, prevalence of higher temperature in its growing environment, susceptible to pod borers and wilt diseases are important.
The challenge of a quantum jump in pulses production in India and especially in Tamil Nadu is formidable, as it requires addressing important developing and research issues. The demand for pulses during 2030 AD would be around 26 million tonnes in India with an expected annual growth rate of 3.3 per cent per annum. To achieve this, the present productivity level of 0.6 tonnes/ha has to be increased to 0.99 tonnes/ha. The limitation is its popularity with the farmers as intercrops rather than as sole crops.
In Tamil Nadu, pulses are being cultivated in 0.953 million hectares within the seven million hectares of cultivable lands and this works to 13 per cent as against 29 per cent under rice. The distribution of different pulses to total pulse area is 39 per cent for blackgram, 17per cent for greengram, 15 per cent for redgram, 13 per cent for horsegram, 0.94 per cent for bengalgram and 16 per cent for other pulses. Majority of the blackgram area is under rice fallow situation followed by as companion crop in the intercropping system especially under dryland situation. About 55 per cent of total cultivable area ( 4 m ha ) is still under dryland, wherein, the scopes are greater to crops is in operation
1. Director, SCMS, TNAU, Coimbatore
2. Professor and Head, Dept. of Meteorology, TNAU, Coimbatore
in the past four decades in Tamil Nadu and many field oriented easy to do, cheap and effective technologies have been generated by TNAU and those offer opportunities to increase the productivity in Tamil Nadu.
The viable technologies especially for dryland situation are discussed here upon.
Technologies to increase dryland pulses productivity
Non monetary inputs
Field studies were conducted during Kharif 1992, 1993 and 1994 at NPRC, Vamban on rainfed blackgram (Srinivasan et al., 1997). The treatments comprised of variety, method of sowing, time of sowing and time of weed control. The pooled results are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Non monetary inputs on the grain yield of blackgram
Treatments
Pods plant
Grain yield (kg/ha)
CBR
T1 Vmpw
19.0
475
1.65
T2 Vmpw
22.0
573
2.43
T3 Mvpw
21.0
545
2.15
T4 Pvmw
21.2
501
2.00
T5 Wvmp
22.0
602
2.40
T6 VMpw
25.0
655
2.52
T7 VPmv
25.0
645
2.50
T8 VWmp
28.7
696
2.65
T9 MPvw
24.5
640
2.50
T10MWvp
29.1
700
2.66
T11PWmv
30.1
705
2.68
T12 VMpw
30.2
705
2.69
T13 VMWp
38.0
803
2.92
T14 VPWm
36.0
774
2.83
T15 MPWv
33.2
735
2.75
T16 VMPW
42.1
845
3.10
CD (5%)
2.9
56
-
(V = Variety; M = Method of sowing; P = Time of sowing; W = Time of weed removal
Small letters indicate local practices, while capital letters indicate improved practice)
The result indicated that there was significant effect of non-monetary inputs on the growth and yield of rainfed blackgram. Improved practices outyielded local practices. Line sowing of Vamban 1 with 30 x 10 cm spacing at the onset of monsoon sowing; weeding 3 weeks after sowing recorded higher number of pods per plant and resulted in higher yield, with increased yield of 78 per cent over control. In respect of the per cent contribution of different non-monetary inputs, improved weed management contributed for 26.7 per cent increased yield, while improved variety, method of planting, time of sowing contributed for 20.6, 14.7 and 5.5 per cent respectively indicating the importance of weeding when sowing was taken up with the onset of rains.
Studies conducted at TNAU, Coimbatore under rainfed during 1989-90 and 1990-91 revealed that adoption of the combined inclusion of non monetary / low cost inputs such as improved redgram variety (CO 5) increased plant population (1,00,000 plants/ha) sowing with the onset of monsoon rain and weed removal on the third week resulted in higher seed yield in redgram (865 kg/ha) (Arunachalam et al. 1995).
At Aruppukkottai, experiment was conducted to identify suitable time of sowing for APK1 redgram and the results are presented in Table 2 (ARS, 2000).
Table 2. Times of sowing on redgram grain yield (kg/ha)
Treatments
Grain yield
September I fortnight sowing
812
September II fortnight sowing
304
October I fortnight sowing
158
October II fortnight sowing
78
CD (5%)
34
The result indicated the superiority of September first fortnight sowing. When the sowing was delayed there was drastic reduction in grain yield.
In another experiment at the same station when sowing was delayed for greengram, bengalgram and horsegram, there was drastic reduction in pulses yield (Table 3) for greengram, but the yield of bengalgram and horsegram was higher in the middle sowing compared to first sowing.
Table 3. Times of sowing in greengram, bengalgram and horsegram
Name of the crop
Grain yield (kg/ha)
Onset of NEM
November 1
November 30
Oct 15
week
Greengram
213
105
61
Bengalgram
208
223
145
Horsegram
477
520
423
The output of several research works have indicated that optimum early time of sowing is required to obtain higher yield in pulses especially for redgram, blackgram, greengram, while, horsegram and bengalgram need late sowing as compared to redgram, blackgram and greengram. Even then, location specific time of sowing has to be generated across areas after identifying efficient cropping zone for each of the pulse crop.
b. Moisture efficiency and conservation practices
Moisture use efficiency of different pulses was computed (ARS, 2000). The moisture use efficiency of blackgram was 0.61 kg/ha/mm, while it was 0.12 for redgram, 0.84 for greengram and 0.53 for cowpea against 6.50 of ragi crop. It is inferred from the information that pulses have lower moisture use efficiency. Research has to be strengthened in this direction.
In another experiment at ARS, Kovilpatti on blackgram (CO5) the results revealed that among the tillage treatments evaluated medium and shallow tillage combination recorded the highest yield of 285 kg / ha followed by shallow ploughing ( 264 kg/ha) (Table 4). Compartmental bunding was found superior in terms of blackgram grain yield obtained.
Table 4. Effect of tillage and management practices on blackgram grain
yield (kg/ha)
Sub/Main
Compartmental bunding
Ridges and furrows
BBP
Mean
Shallow ploughing
299
256
237
264
Medium and shallow ploughing
349
285
223
285
Country ploughing
285
235
210
243
Mean
311
259
223
-
CD (5%) Main plot : 16 Sub plot : 12
M x S : 23 S x M : 21
Little research efforts were taken to identify suitable moisture conservation practices for sole pulses, but information are available for different pulses based intercropping systems. Greengram seemed to possess higher WUE character followed by blackgram and this indicated that for area of low rainfall greengram would be the choice either as sole crop or as intercrop.
c. Nutrient Management
There was response from blackgram to P application up to 40 kg / ha (Table 5) in a study conducted at NPRC, Vamban especially in lateritic soils (Ramamoorthy et al., 1997) and single year response to sulphur (applied through gypsum) up to 40 kg / ha.
Table 5. Effect of P and S on blackgram grain yield (kg / ha)
Treatments
Grain yield
1992
1993
Mean
P kg/ha
0
157
224
191
20
360
356
358
40
497
512
505
60
494
490
492
CD (5%)
49
57
-
S kg/ha
0
334
342
338
20
384
374
379
40
347
470
452
CD (5%)
51
82
-
Interaction
CD (5%)
75
105
-
In another experiment conducted (Solaiappan et al., 1994) at Madurai during kharif 1984 in sandy clay loam soil, on redgram (CO 4), the results revealed that basal application of 6.25 kg N and 12.5 kg P2O5 /ha followed by foliar spray of 3 per cent DAP (70 DAS) recorded higher seed yield (11.26 q/ha with a BC ratio of 2.02. In the same study seed treatment with Rhizobium recorded higher yield of 10.26 q/ha with a BC ratio of 1.86 and the treatment was at par with the treatment wherein seeds were treated with super phosphate (12% W/W).
In a study on greengram, the highest grain yield and Relative Agronomic Efficiency (RAE) were obtained under MRP application at 25 kg P2O5 /ha along with seed treatment of phosphobacteria at 400 g / ha seeds (Table 6) as reported by Ramamoorthy and Arokia Raj (1997).
Table 6. Effect of treatments on greengram yield (kg / ha)
Treatments
Grain yield
(kg / ha)
RAE (%)
T1 Control
517
-
T2 25 kg P205 / ha as SSP
634
77
T3 50 kg P2O5 / ha as SSP
669
100
T4 25 kg P2O5 / ha as MRP + seed treatment with Phosphobacteria
1044
346
T5 50 kg P2O5 / ha as MRP + seed treatment with phosphobacteria
799
185
T6 25 kg P2O5 / ha as MRP + FYM 10 t/ha
693
116
T7 50 kg P2O5 /ha as MRP + FYM 10 t/ha
708
126
T8 25 kg P2O5 /ha as MRP + BDS at 5 t/ha
777
171
T9 50 kg P2O5 / ha as MRP + BDS at 5 t/ha
813
195
T10 Seed treatment with phosphobacteria
699
120
T11 FYM 10 t/ha
600
55
T12 Enriched BDS at 5 t/ha
907
257
CD (5%)
131
-
BDS : Biodigested slurry
In another study at NPRC, Vamban (Ramamoorthy et al., 1997) on rainfed redgram, the results revealed that the highest grain yield was obtained (449 kg / ha) under 12.5 kg N + 37.5 kg P2O5 / ha as MRP with seed inoculation of phosphobacteria. This treatment was significantly superior to other treatments but at par with higher dose of P ( 50 kg / ha as MRP).
Nutrient efficiency of dryland pulses was computed based on experiments at ARS, Kovilpatti (ARS, 2000). The nutrient efficiency of blackgram was 14.9 and 6.7 kg per kg of N and P respectively while it was 29.2 and 12.9; 20.6 and 9.7; 12.8 and 6.1 respectively for redgram, greengram and cowpea. Redgram seemed to be nutrient efficient crop as compared to other pulses.
In another experiment at the same station the result revealed that application of 25 kg P2O5 / ha as EFYM registered significantly higher blackgram yield of 1.20 q / ha( Table 7).
Table 7. Effect of P on blackgram yield
Treatments
Grain yield (q /ha )
Rainfall use efficiency (Kg / mm / ha)
10 kg P2O5 / ha (MRP)
0.79
0.8
12.5 kg P2O5 / ha (MRP)
0.81
0.9
25 kg P2O5 / ha (MRP)
0.90
0.9
37.5 kg P2O5 / ha (MRP)
0.87
0.9
25 kg P2O5 / ha (Super)
0.81
0.8
25 kg P2O5 / ha (EFYM+Super)
0.95
1.0
25 kg P2O5 / ha (ERYM+MRP)
1.20
1.3
CD (5%)
0.04
-
At Paiyur, soil application of recommended inorganic fertilizer with 2 per cent DAP spray twice (flowering and 15 days later) recorded the highest grain yield of 1134 kg /ha in cowpea (Table 8) as reported in RRS, 2000.
Table 8. Yield of rainfed cowpea kg / ha (mean of 1995 and 1996)
Treatment
Seed yield ( kg / ha)
BC ratio
T1 (DAP spray twice)
863
1.75
T2 Seed pelleting with DAP
536
1.16
T3 Soil application of recommended fertilizer
954
1.75
T4 Seed pelleting with KH2PO4
463
0.99
T5 T1 +T3
1134
1.96
T6 Control
255
0.55
CD (5%)
82
-
In another trial conducted in the same station with horsegram, which was a succeeding crop to sorghum in the cropping system of sorghum-horsegram (pooled data of three years), horsegram yield was higher (184 kg/ha) under recommended inorganic fertilizer application + EFYM, which was at par with recommended fertilizer + biofertilizer; EFYM + biofertilizer and EFYM alone treatments.
In a ragi-horsegram crop sequence the treatment 40 kg P2O5 / ha as RF either with phosphorus solubilising agents like phosphobacteria or VAM4 recorded higher horsegram yield of 348 and 365 kg / ha respectively.
In greengram at Paiyur, the yield got increased significantly in the plot applied with 18.75 kg P2O5 / ha + seed soaking (Table 9).
Table 9. Effect of treatments on greengram yield kg / ha
Treatments
Grain yield
(kg /ha)
Haulm yield
(kg / ha)
BC ratio
T1 Control
844
1577
4.87
T2 Seed soaking with SSP at 20 g SSP/kg of seed for 1 hour
1064
1878
6.13
T3 Seed soaking with RP at 20g RP / kg of seed for 1 hour
1118
2087
6.34
T4 25 kg P2O5 / ha as SSP
1214
2223
5.87
T5 25 kg P2O5 / ha as RP
1141
2040
5.90
T6 12.5 kg P2O5 / ha as SSP +T2
1200
2287
6.30
T7 12.5 kg P2O5 / ha as RP + T3
1154
2064
6.18
T8 18.75 kg P2O5 / ha as SSP +T2
1374
2491
6.92
T9 18.75 kg P2O5 / ha as RP + T3
1197
2186
6.35
T10 25 kg P2O5 / ha as RP + Pb
1221
2252
6.29
T11 25 kg P2O5 / ha as RP + VAM
1219
2162
5.80
T12 25 kg P2O5 / ha as RP + Pb + VAM
1276
2343
6.06
CD (5%)
113.4
428.0
-
In a cropping system of groundnut-horsegram at Paiyur, horsegram grain yield was higher (638 kg / ha) when the preceding groundnut crop was applied with 75 per cent soil test based Nitrogen + CCP (5 t/ha).
The above results indicated that pulses responsed to phosphorus and sulphur. There was promising response of rock phosphate when it was applied along with phosphobacteria. Similarly foliar application of DAP had added advantage on pulses productivity. Still INM has to be developed for each agroclimatic sub zone of Tamil Nadu.
d. Weed Management
Kandasamy (1999) studied weed management for redgram (CO 5) for two years 1993 and 1994. The result indicated that metalachlor at 1.0 kg / ha + manual weeding effectively controlled the weeds and maximized pigeonpea yield to 832 and 893 kg ha-1 (Table 11) in 1993 and 1994 respectively. Application of metalachlor or alachlor alone each at 1.5 kg / ha, alachlor or pendimethalin each at 1.0 kg / ha + manual weeding and manual weeding twice caused similar increase in grain yield and were statistically at par with the best treatment metalachlor + manual weeding. Pre-emergence application of oxyfluorfen and clomazone were phytotoxic and this was more pronounced with higher doses, especially with oxyfluorfen. The uncontrolled weeds resulted in 55 to 60 per cent yield loss of rainfed pigeonpea and maximum economic advantage was achieved with metalachlor or alachlor applied at higher dose (2.38 to 2.65 ) or at lower dose in combination with manual weeding (2.31 to 2.58).
Table 11. Effect of weed control methods on redgram yield
Treatments
WCE (%)
Grain yield
( kg / ha)
BC ratio
1993
1994
1993
1994
1993
1994
Metolachlor 1.50 kg ha-1 3 DAS
69.3
76.1
774
826
2.38
2.54
Oxyfluorfen 0.20 kg ha-1 3 DAS
70.6
69.4
619
692
1.78
1.99
Pendimethalin 1.50 kg ha-1 3 DAS
71.1
72.2
762
799
1.97
2.06
Alachlor 1.50 kg ha –1 3 DAS
71.7
75.2
740
862
2.28
2.65
Clomozone 1.00 kg ha-1 3 DAS
61.3
63.0
648
681
2.07
2.18
Metolachlor 1.0 + MW (40 DAS)
83.6
79.2
832
893
2.35
2.58
Oxyfluorfen 0.15 3 DAS + MW (40 DAS)
82.1
73.4
652
707
1.73
1.88
Pendimethalin 1.00 3 DAS + MW (40 DAS)
82.5
76.0
812
792
2.06
2.01
Alachlor 1.00 3 DAS + MW(40 DAS)
79.5
71.4
819
840
2.31
2.37
Clomazone 0.75 3 DAS MW (40 DAS)
78.5
63.8
743
668
2.12
1.91
Fluazifop 0.25 3 DAS + MW (20+40 DAS)
76.9
62.5
764
676
2.26
2.00
MW twice (20 + 40 DAS)
83.5
80.2
829
884
2.16
2.31
Control
-
-
375
362
1.50
1.45
CD (5%)
-
-
58
71.1
-
-
In a study on times of application of herbicides for rainfed greengram Jaganathan et al. (1994) concluded that sand mix application of pendimethalin at 0.75 kg/ha applied at the time of sowing recorded higher grain yield of 1216 kg/ha which was at par with hand weeding and hoeing on 30 DAS (1175 kg /ha), sand mix application of fluchloralin at 0.70 kg /ha, applied at the time of sowing (1208 kg /ha) and sand mix application of pendimethalin 0.75 kg / ha applied at 3 DAS (1005 kg / ha).
In another study conducted at Paiyur (RRS ,2000) application of fluchloralin at 1.5 litres / ha at 3 DAS followed by hand weeding (30 DAS) registered higher yield of 1180 kg / ha in cowpea, while in greengram the best treatment was application of fluchloralin 1 litre / ha ( 3 DAS) followed by one hand weeding on 30 DAS.
The results indicated that herbicides could be applied up to 3 DAS without any loss from the herbicides on the control of weeds. When manual weeding was integrated with herbicide application, there was synergistic interaction. However further research is required to generate IWM practice for each agroclimatic sub zone of Tamil Nadu.
Conclusion
Even though in the past means researches were conducted, the results were inadequate to provide ways and means to increase the productivity of pulses to achieve the expected production level for 2030 AD. A number of key technological economical and political factors can influence the pulse production. Horizontal expansion through short duration pulse in production, genetic enhancement, development of new types to high inputs, development of varieties for intercropping system, introduction of INM, development of varieties resistant to Helicoverpa and wilt diseases are some of the research and development agenda to be addressed immediately. Genomic and transgenic research is the need of the hour. The prospects of the use of molecular techniques to magnify the power of breeding research offers greater scope for developing better varieties.
Multiplication of large quantity of quality seeds, their safe storage and distribution, timely dissemination of information on plant protection need allotment of increased funds for pulse research. Fitting of pulse crops in new and non-conventional cropping systems, providing support prices are some of the areas need policy attention.
Earmarking efficient cropping zone for pulses and introduction of hi-tech, documentation of productivity of different pulse based cropping systems are some of the prioritized works to be attended.
It is thus concluded that pulses productivity can very easily be increased and sustained provided integrated approach is handled. Each component of improved technology is equally important. With the introduction of high potential pest and disease resistant genotypes, Rhizobium inoculation, proper seed rate, executing optimum time of sowing, practicing INM and IWM techniques, the productivity of pulses could certainly be doubled in the coming years, if strong pulse research and extension co-exist.
References
Arunachalam,L., S.Purushothaman, Palaniappan,SP. And M.Mark Devasahayam. 1995. Relative contribution of non-monetary/low cost inputs in redgram production. Madras Agric.J., 82(3): 179-181
ARS, 2000. Review paper on dryland agriculture. Agricultural Research Station, Kovilpatti.
Jaganathan,R., Jayakumar,R. and M.Nadanam. 1994. Times of application of herbicides for rainfed greengram. Madras Agric.J., 81(10): 570-571.
Kandasamy,O.S. 1999. Effect of herbicides with and without manual weeding on weeds and yield of rainfed pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.mill sp.). Legume Research, 22(3): 172-176.
Ramamoorthi,K., Balasubramanian,A. and A.Arokia Raj. 1997. Response of rainfed blackgram (Phaseolus mungo) to phosphorus and sulphur nutrition in red lateritic soils. Indian J.Agron.,42(1): 191-193.
Ramamoorthy,K. and A.Arokia Raj. 1997. Agronomic effectiveness of organic sources and MRP to phosphorus economy in rainfed greengram Madras Agric.J., 84(10): 593-595.
RRS, 2000a. Review paper on dryland agriculture. Regional Research Station, Aruppukottai.
RRS, 2000b. Review paper on dryland agriculture. Regional Research Station, Paiyur.
Solaiappan, U., Senthivel, S. and S. Paramasivam. 1994. Influence of seed treatments and fertilizer levels on growth and yield of rainfed redgram. Madras Agric.J., 8(5): 245-248.
Srinivasan, K., Vairavan,K. and M.Ramasamy. 1997. Relative contribution of non-monetary inputs in rainfed urd bean. Madras Agric.J.,84 (10): 602-603.
PLANT PROTECTION STRATEGIES IN PULSES
Dr.Sabitha Doraiswamy1, Dr.K.Gunasekaran2 and Dr.T. Ganapathy3
India is one of the largest producer of pulses (13 million tonnes) but the average productivity is very low (614 kg/ha) (Ali, 1998).The major pulse crops grown in Tamil Nadu are chickpea, pigeonpea, urdbean, mungbean and cowpea. Among the various constraints, insect pests and diseases are the major and important one affecting the productivity of pulses apart from ecological and biological constraints.
I. INSECT PESTS
A variety of insect pests infest pulses and the annual yield loss is estimated to be 20 per cent in pigeonpea, 15 per cent in chickpea and 30 per cent in urdbean and mungbean. On an average 2.5 to 3.0 million tonnes of pulses are lost annually due to pests (Ali, 1998). The insects causing economic damage are :
1. Pigeonpea
1. Gram pod borer : Helicoverpa armigera
2. Spotted pod borer : Maruca virtata
3. Plume moth : Exalastis atomosa
4. Blue butterfly : Lamides boeticus
5. Podfly : Melanagromyza obtusa
6. Pod bug : Clavigralla gibbosa; Riptortus spp.
7. Blister beetle : Mylabris spp
2. Mungbean / Urdbean / Lentil / Peas
1. Stemfly : Ophiomyia phaseoli
2. Whitefly : Bemisia tabaci
3. Leaf hopper : Empoasca kerri
4. Pod borer : Etiella zinkenella
5. Aphids : Aphis craccivora
1. Director, CPPS, 2. Associate Professor, Entomology, 3. Associate Professor, Plant Pathology, TNAU, Coimbatore
3. Chickpea
1. Gram pod borer : Helicoverpa armigera
2. Semilooper : Autographa nigrisigma
3. Cutworm : Agrotis ipsilon
4. Black aphid : Aphis craccivora
5. Temite : Odentotermes obesus
Pest management
1. Pigeonpea
Pigeonpea is the second most important and highly profitable pulse crop cultivated in 3.47 million hectares in different states in the country. The production is also steadily increasing from 1.02 in 1949–'50 to 2.77 million tonnes in 1998–'99. The average yield is almost static varying from 0.4 to 0.8 tonnes /ha despite the potential yield of 1.5 to 3.0 tonnes/ha. Nearly 90 per cent of the crop is grown under rainfed conditions with medium and long duration cultivars. Short duration varieties are suited for irrigated conditions. As the pigeonpea is grown under wide variety of agroclimatic conditions and under varied cropping systems of different maturity, it is valuables to many pests and about 250 species of insects belonging to 8 orders and 61 families are reported to attack this crop. The early or vegetative stage pests are not causing economic damage. However, the pests of flowers and pod borers are the major and important pests.
Apart from the above pests pod wasp, Tanaostigmodes cajaninae (LaSalle) and mealy bug, Coccidohystrix insolitus (Green) are also attaining major pest status causing 10–75 per cent damage in Tamil Nadu.
There is no resistant variety for pod borers. Planting date is having influence on the incidence of pod borers. For example, June month sowing helps the crop to escape from the attack of pod borers like H. armigera and requires lesser number of sprays in Tamil Nadu. Though there are several parasitoids and other biocontrol agents have been recorded, only NPV and B.t are found to be promising under field conditions.
1. Seedling pests : If sucking pests are noted , spray methyl demeton 25 EC 500 ml or dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml (250 litres spray fluid/ha).
2. Inflorescence and pod borers : Spraying can be taken up based on Economic Threshold (ETL).For example , Maruca 3/plant, Exalastis 5/plant. Whenever H. armigera is predominant apply NPV 500LE/ha to control the pest in the early stage. Apply any one of the following
insecticides at 25 kg/ha – Endosulfan 4% D; quinalphos 4% D; carbaryl 5% D or spray endosulfan 35 EC 1250 ml, monocrotophos 625 ml/ha. Spraying of NSKE 5% twice followed by triazophos 0.05% is also effective. Application of Neem oil 2% and phosalone 0.07% has controlled the pod borers and increased the yield.
Recent studies have indicated that following IPM methods have controlled the pest and increased the yield.
1. Installation of bird perches @ 50/ha
2. H. armigera pheromone trap @ 10/ha
3. Collection and destruction of fully grown larvae
4. Spraying NSKE 5% at 50% flowering
5. Spraying HaNPV at 500 LE/ha at 15 days after first spray
6. Application of the following insecticides at 15 days interval depending on the intensity of pest. Chlorpyriphos 0.05% or monocrotophos 0.04%
2. Green gram and black gram
There are nearly 200 insect pests belonging to 48 families in coleoptera, diptera, hemiptera, hymenoptera, isoptera, lepidoptera, orthoptera, thysanoptera, and 7 mites of the order Acarina are attacking the above crops. Under severe case stemfly alone causes more than 90 per cent damage resulting in an yield loss upto 20 per cent (Talekar, 1990). The galerucid beetle, Madurasia obscurella causes damage upto 20 – 60 per cent. Whitefly, a potential vector of mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV) causes losses ranging from 30 – 70 per cent. Damage due to bruchids, Callosobruchus chinensis starts right from the field. Adults emerging from the stored seeds lay eggs on healthy grains. The field infestation ranges from 7.8 – 9.9 per cent (Banto and Sanchez, 1972) and there was 100 per cent destruction of seeds when there was 9.9 per cent field infestation.
Adjusting the sowing dates, use of resistant varieties and growing inter or trap crops can be followed depending on the availability and effectiveness in a particular location. Use of biocontrol agents has not been successful in these crops although it is a viable alternative despite the record of several natural enemies in the field.
1. Early stage pests : In order to protect from seedling stage pests like stemfly and sap feeders, application of carbofuron 3 G (30 kg) or Aldicarb 10 G (10 kg)/ha in the soil at the time of sowing can be applied. Spraying of endosulfan 35EC 500 ml/ha a week after germination and again 10 days after first round also controls the pests (Anon,1999). Alternatively, seed
pelleting with dimethoate 5 ml/kg (dissolve 1g gum in 20 ml of water and add 5 ml of dimethoate, pellet the seeds and shade dry) followed by one round of endosulfan 0.035 per cent controls the early stage pests.
2. Young plants : If sucking pests are noticed, spray methyldemeton 25 EC 500 ml or dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml or phosphamidon 85 EC 250 ml/ha (250 litres of spray fluid / ha)
3. Inflorescence and pods : Apply any one of the following insecticides at 25 kg/ha. endosulfan 4% D or quinalphos 1.5 % D or phosalone 4 % D or carbaryl 5 % D. Spraying of endosulfan 35 EC 1000 ml or monocrotophos 36 WSC 500 ml can also be sprayed (spray fluid 500 ml/ha).Spraying of neem seed kernel extract 5 % twice ,starting from 50 per cent flowering stage followed by one round of endosulfan 0.07 % is also effective.
4. Storage pests : Seeds must be dried to reduce the moisture level to 8 per cent. To reduce further attack by bruchids seeds can be treated with 1 kg of activated clay or malathion 5 % D / 100 kg of seed. Neem seed kernel powder 3 % also protects the seeds from pests.
Pest management in cowpea
The cowpea is an important pulse and vegetable crop attacked by variety of sap feeders like aphids in the early stage and flower feeders and borers at later stage of the crop.
1. Early stage pest
Sucking pests : Spray methyl demeton 25 EC 500ml or dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml/ha (250 l spray fluid / ha).
Stemfly: Soil application of carbofuron 3G (15 kg/ha) at the time of sowing or spray endosulfan 35 EC a week after germination and second round 10 days after first round.
2. Protection of inflorescence and pod borers : Dust endosulfan 4% D or quinalphos 1.5% D or phosalone 4% D or carbaryl 5% D@ 25 kg/ha or spray endosulfan 35 EC 1000 ml 0r monocrotophos 36 WSC 500 ml (500 l spray fluid/ha)
Pest management in chickpea
Chickpea is an important pulse crop grown in 7.3 million hectares (Yadava and Lal, 1998) with an average yield of 800 kg/ha. A wide variety of are attacking the crop and nearly 54 insect species have been recorded. In addition to insects, few nematodes are also infesting the chickpea.
Helicoverpa is the key pest causing an average yield loss of 7.3 per cent for the entire country. There was even 90 per cent damage under severe cases. The annual loss due to this pest was estimated to be Rs.20.30 crores (Lal et al. 1985)
1. Protection of pods and flowers
Application of phosalone 4% D or quinalphos 1.5% D or or carbaryl 5% D @ 25 kg/ha; NPV 250 LE/ha; NSKE 5% or spraying of endosulfan 35EC 1000 ml/ha or monocrotophos 36 WSC 500 ml/ha (500 litres spray fluid/ha)
Spraying (ETL 2 early instar larvae / 10 plants) of endosulfan 0.07% in combination with neem oil 0.01%. or three sprays of NPV along with 10% aqueous extract of Vitex negundu is also effective against H. armigera. The application of B.t. @ 1500 ml/ha is effective against H. armigera.
2. Storage of seeds
Seeds can be treated with 1.0 kg of malathion 5% D or Activated Kaolin clay/100 kg of seed to protect the seeds from storage pests. Store the seeds in polythene lined gunny bags.
II. DISEASES
Red gram , blackgram and greengram are the major pulse crop grown in different systems as rain fed and irrigated crop in different seasons. The above pulse crop is attacked by several diseases caused by viruses, fungi , bacteria and phytoplasma. Major constraints in increasing the production in redgram is sterility mosaic and in black gram and green gram are yellow mosaic caused by Mungbean Yellow Mosaic virus (MYMV), leaf crinkle caused by Urdbean leaf crinkle virus (ULCV), leaf curl caused by Peanut bud necrosis virus (PBNV), powdery mildew and dry root rot. These are the potentially dangerous diseases in Tamil Nadu. Only possible way to reduce the yield loss due to these diseases are adopting the integrated disease management practice (IDM) employing many strategies like use of resistant varieties, use of disease free seeds, manipulation of cultural practices, management of vectors, application of bio-control agents and chemicals.
Table 1. Some important diseases of Red gram
Common name
Symptoms
Host range
Transmissiion
Sterility mosaic
Typical mosaic mottling symptom, later plants become sterile or partially sterile
Narrow
Eriophyid mite (Aceria cajani)
Wilt
Gradual withering and drying up of plants
Wide
–
Root rot
Premature defoliation and sudden death of the plants
Wide
–
Table 2. Important viral diseases of blackgram and greengram, symptoms, host range and transmission
Common name
Virus code
Symptoms
Host range
Transmissiion
Yellow mosaic
MYMV
Mild scattered yellow specks on the leaves
Wide
White fly (Bemisia tabaci)
Leaf crinkle
ULCV
Enlargement, crinkling and rugosity are the typical symptoms
Wide
Aphid, white fly, beetle, and also through seed.
Leaf curl
PBNV
Chlorosis and inward curling of leaves
Not known
Transmitted through thrips
The other virus diseases of black gram and green gram are bean common mosaic, alfalfa mosaic, bean yellow mosaic, Cowpea aphid-borne mosaic and etc.
The major fungal diseases of black gram and green gram are the powdery mildew, dry root rot, and leaf spot diseases like Cercospora, Alternaria leaf spots and rust (Gurdip Singh and Bhan, 1998 : Muthukrishnan et al., 1995)
Table 3. Important fungal diseases of blackgram and greengram, causal organism and their symptoms
Common name
Causal organism
Symptoms
Powdery mildew
Erysiphe polygoni
White powdery growth both on upper and lower surface of the leaf
Dry root rot
Macrophomina phaseolina
Sudden death of the plants
Cercospora leaf spot
Cercospora canescens
Irregular to regular purplish brown spots with pale gray center.
Alternaria leaf spot
Alternaria spp
Dark brown lesions with concentric rings.
Rust
Uromyces sp.
Small brownish errumpent pustules
The bacterial and phytoplasma diseases are the minor importance in Tamil Nadu.
Important diseases of Cowpea
Cowpea aphid borne mosaic virus
Root rot
Important disease of Bengal gram
Wilt
Integrated Management of Diseases
A. Redgram
i. Sterility mosaic : Rouge out the infected plants in the early stages of growth. Spray monocrotophos 500 ml/ha on noticing the initial symptoms and repeat after a fortnight.
ii. Wilt and root rot :
a. Spot drench around the base of the affected plants as well as healthy plants surrounding them with carbendazim @ 1 g/litre for wilt and root rot.
b. Soil application of Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 2.5 kg/ha mixed with 50 kg of well decomposed FYM/sand at 30 days after sowing
Black gram and green gram
Integrated management strategies involves use of resistant varieties, use of disease free seeds, manipulation of cultural practices, management of vectors, and biological and chemical control methods (Raguchandar et al., 1995; Vidhyasekaran and Muthamilan, 1995).
• Use of resistant varieties
• Vamban 1, Vamban 2, and Vamban 3 are resistant to yellow mosaic virus.
• Application of Neem cake @ 150 kgs / ha for the control of dry root rot disease
• Seed treatment : Treat seeds with talc formulation of Trichoderma virde @ 4g/kg of seed (or) Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 10 g/kg of seed (or) carbendazim or thiram @ 2 g/kg of seeds.
• Soil application / drenching
• Apply Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 2.5 kg/ha mixed with 50 kg of well decomposed Farm yard manure /sand at 30 days after sowing for the control of root rot.
• Removal of yellow mosaic, leaf crinkle and leaf curl infected plants.
• Removal of weeds.
• Collect the seeds from disease free plants.
• Vector management
Name of the disease
Control measure
Yellow mosaic
Spray Monocrotophos @ 500 ml /ha or Methyl demeton @ 500 ml/ha and repeat after 15 days.
Leaf crinkle
Leaf curl
Powdery mildew
Spray NSKE 5% or Neem oil 3% twice at 10 days interval from the initial disease appearance (OR) Spray Carbendazim 250 gm/ha or Wettable sulphur 2.5 kg/ha.
Rust
Spray Mancozeb I kg (or) Wettable Sulphur 2.5 kg/ha
Leaf spot
Spray Carbendazim @ 250 g/ha
Cowpea :
Mosaic Virus
• Rogueing out of affected plants in the early stage of growth upto 30 days
• Spray Monocrotophos 500 ml/ha or Methyldemeton 500 ml/ha twice at fortnightly intervals
Root rot
• Spot drench Carbendazim 1 g/lit or soil application of Pseudomonas fluorescens @ 2.5 kg/ha mixed with 50 kg of well decomposed FYM/sand at 30 days after sowing
Bengal gram
Wilt
• Treat with T.viride culture @ 4 g/kg of seed and sown.
• Soil application with P. fluorescens peat culture @ 2.5 kg/ha
• Application of peat culture mixed with organic manure or sand along with the rows at the time of sowing and at 30 and 60 days after sowing
• Treat the seeds with P. fluorescens talc formulation @ 10 g/kg
Reference
Ali,M.1998.Research,Development and management for production of pulses. In:IPM System in Agriculture.Volume 4. Pulses, R.K.Upadhyay, K.G.Mukerji and R.L.Rajak (Eds.) Aditya Books Private Limited ,New Delhi. pp1–40.
Anonymous,1999.Crop Production Guide. Directorate of Agriculture, Chennai 600 005. Pp 73–102.
Banto,S.M. and F.F..Sanchez. 1972. The biology and chemical control of Callasobruchus chinensis (Linn) (Coleoptera:Bruchidae) Philipp. Entomol. 2:167–182.
Gurdip Singh and Livinder Kaur Bhan. 1998. Disease of Mungbean and Urbean and their management. In : IPM System in Agriculture. Vol. IV. Pulses. Upadhyay, R.K.Mukerji, K.G. and Rajak, R.L. (Eds.), Aditya Books Private Ltd., New Delhi, India. pp 311-371.
Lal,S.S.,C.P.Yadava and C.A.R.Dias, 1985.Assesment of crop losses caused by Helicoverpa armigera, FAO Plant Protection Bulletin 33:27–35.
Muthukrishnan, K., Arjunan, G. and Raguchander, T. 1995. Some pathological studies on Macrophomina root rot of urbean. Indian Journal of Pulses Research, 8:162-165.
Raguchander, T. Rajappan, K. and Prabakar, K. 1995. Evaluation of tale based product of Trichoderma viride of the control of blackgram root rot. Journal of Biological Control, 9:63-64.
Talekar,N.S.1990. Agromyzid flies of food legumes in tropics . Wiley Eastern Limited, New Delhi.
Vidhyasekaran, P and Muthamilan, M. 1995. Development of formulation of Pseudomonas fluorescens for the control of chickpea wilt. Plant Dis. 79:782-786.
Yadava,C.P. and S.S.Lal,1998.Major insect pests of chickpea and their management. In:IPM System in Agriculture.Volume 4. Pulses , R.K.Upadhyay, K.G.Mukerji and R.L.Rajak (Eds.) Aditya Books Private Limited ,New Delhi. pp197–231.
MANGEMENT OF PODBORER COMPLEX
IN REDGRAM
Dr. K. Gunasekaran*
Among the pulses, the redgram Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. is the most important dietary component of human beings. India is the largest producer contributing more than 90 per cent of the worlds production of redgram. Though the area has increased from 2.18 (1950–51) to 3.47 million ha (1998–99) and the production has increased from 1.72 to 2.77 million tonnes. However the productivity remains almost constant (788 – 799 kg/ha) (Anon, 2000). Owing to the increase in population the per capita availability has been reduced from 12.05 to 6.08 g/day (Durairaj, 1999). In Tamil Nadu redgram is grown under 1.41 lakh ha with a production of 1.22 lakh tonnes. The average productivity is 864 kg/ha (Anon,2000a).
Among the various constraints, insect pest is one of the major and important one affecting the productivity of red gram apart from ecological and biological constraints. ICRISAT (1981) listed 19 important pests of redgram that are known to occur in India and the important pests are listed in Table 1. The level of damage caused by different pests either individually or jointly may vary with locations.
Table 1. Important pests of redgram
S.No.
Common Name
Scientific Name
Plant Parts damaged
1
Flower beetle
Mylabris spp.
Flower / pod
2
Spotted pod borer
Maruca virtata
Pod
3
Gram pod borer
Helicoverpa armigera
Pod
4
Plume moth
Exelastis atomosa
Pod
5
Blue butterfly
Catechrysops cnejus
Pod
6
Pod wasp
Tanastigmodes cajaninae
Pod
7
Pod fly
Melanagromyza obtusa
Pod
8
Pod bug
Clavigralla spp.
Pod
* Associate Professor, Dept. of Agricultural Entomology, TNAU, Coimabtore
Among the eight pests, the gram pod borer and the pod fly are of major concern in the redgram growing areas. The intensity of damage caused by pod borers in different states of India is presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Intensity of Pod borer damage in redgram growing areas of India
Damage (%)
Grade
States
>20
High
Punjab, Maharastra, Madhy Pradesh, Tamil Nadu
7–20
Moderate
Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh
<7
Low
North Eastern States
Monitoring of Helicoverpa armigera
The trap catch is influenced by environment, crop, egg and larval population. The seasonal cycle of this pest varied in different parts of the country and also with cropping pattern. Studies so far conducted has indicated that these traps can be used as a monitoring device to design the management strategies against H.armigera.
Podfly
Among the 20 species under the genus Melagromyza, only two species viz., M.obtusa and M.chalcosoma Spencer feed on redgram. M.obtusa is of economic importance only in the larval stages and is the major pest in medium and long duration varieties causing 60–80 per cent grain damage (Lal and Katti,1998). In Tamil Nadu the grain damage ranged from 2.5 to 51.0 per cent (Sheriff and Rajagopalan,1971; Rajagopalan and Devakumar,1965). The infected seeds do not germinate. Partially matured pods are used for egg laying than the tender or fully matured pods.
Monitoring
All the immature stages remain within the developing pod and is very difficult to monitor without damaging the pod. Though several attractants and traps have been designed to monitor the adult flies, none of them are effective in the field (Sithanantham et. al.1981; Mohan et.al.,1994; Durairaj,1995). Hence, monitoring needs further research.
Spotted pod borer
The larvae cause extensive damage to floral buds and flowers. The characterestic symptom is webbing together of flowers, pods, and leaves with
frass often on pods and shoot tips. This is serious pest in early maturing varieties.
Monitoring
The adults can be monitored through light traps though there are variations in the catches in different months at various regions of the country.
Plume moth
The pest is active throughout the year depending on the availability of the host plants. Apart from redgram, it is also recorded in horse gram and lab lab. The average pod and grain damage was 8.95 and 4.02 per cent respectively (Bindra and Jakhmola, 1967)
Blue butterfly
It causes considerable damage to buds, flowers and tender pods compared to other pod borers. Cowpea, pea, and beans are also important hosts for this pest.
Pod wasp
This was first recorded in Patancheru during 1997 (Lateef, 1997). Many infested pods fail to develop and are either shed or retained in the plants. The adults emerge from these undeveloped pods. The basal locule is most commonly affected. The damage is to the extent of 16.3 – 49.7 per cent depending on the duration of the crop.
Pod bug
This is the most important sucking pest of pods. The adults mostly lay eggs on green pods or leaves. At times floral buds, developing pods and dough pods were also preferred for oviposition.
Blister beetle
The beetles are found to occur throughout the year in redgram, cowpea, green gram and black gram. Peak incidence was observed during September causing a maximum flower damage of 95 per cent.
MANAGEMENT
1. Host Plant Resistance
This is the most important and widely adopted components in IPM. Several short, medium and long duration maturity groups have shown resistance or tolerance to gram pod borer and pod fly. Ten redgram selections viz., ICRISAT 16, 166–2–1, ICP 7946–1–3–3, ICP 127, SL 12–3–1, SL 41–3–3, PDA 88–2E–3–1, ICP 3401, ICP 7950 and ICP 12304 were promising (Lal,1996). Rabi red gram SL 21–6–2 was tolerant against pod borer and pod fly in many locations of the country (Anon,1996–97). Several resistant lines were identified (Table 3)from ICRISAT (Lateef and Pimbert,1990) The short duration entries ICPL 4, ICPL 2 and ICPL 88034 were tolerant pod borer complex (Durairaj et.al. 1997). In Tamil Nadu, the entries viz., PDA 88–2E and PDA 92–1E were tolerant to lepidopteran pests and pod fly (Durairaj and Ganapathy, 1997).
The cultivars with small pods, small dark coloured seeds and deep constrictions between seed locules were less preferred by pod fly. High level of trypsin inhibitors and linolool was recorded in resistant lines to gram pod borer (ICRISAT, 1989 &1990).
2. Cultural Practices
The effects of several cultural practices have been investigated on the incidence of pod borer complex. In north, the timely sowing saves the crop from the incidence of Helicoverpa (Sachan, 1992).
3. Biological control
Though several parasites and predators have been recorded against Helicoverpa, they are less effective under field conditions (Durairaj, 1999). The pathogens like HaNPV @ 500 LE (3.0x 1012 POBs/ha) were effective under field conditions. There was high level (>80%) of parasitism by the larval – pupal parasitoid Ormyrus spp. on pod fly in Vamban (Durairaj,1998).
Table 3. Redgram genotypes identified as resistant to Helicoverpa armigera
Genotypes
Mean Resistance
Rating 1
Borer Damage range
during 1979–90(%)
Short duration (Hissar)
ICPL 1
ICPL 2
ICPL 269
ICPL 187–1
Control– Pant A1
3.7(7)
3.9 (8)
4.7 (6)
3.7 (7)
6.9(9)
5 – 32
6 – 45
11 – 29
8 – 29
14 – 58
Medium & Medium – Long Duration
(ICRISAT Centre)
ICP909 –F3
PPE 45–2
ICP 1811–F3
ICP 1903–F1
ICP 10466–F3
4.5 (11)
4.4 (11)
4.1 (11)
3.8 (11)
3.7 (11)
6 – 50
4 – 37
9 – 50
13 – 67
3 – 67
Controls
ICP 1691 (Susceptible)
BDN – 1
C –11
ICP 3615
ICP 5036
7.5 (11)
6.0 (11)
6.0 (11)
3.6 (11)
3.5 (11)
11 – 100
16 – 90
18 – 76
14 – 50
7 – 61
1. Rated on a 1 to 9 scale, where 1= Resistant and 9 = susceptible
2. Figures in parentheses indicate the number of years tested
(After Lateef and Pimbert,1990)
3. Chemical control
This is the most reliable and effective control measure and offer immediate solution to most of the problems. As the pod borer complex consists of more than one pest and their intensity of attack differs depending on the maturity of crop and geographical distribution, the type of insecticide and time of use vary according to the pest situation. Generally the lepidopteran borers and pod fly cause major damage and the control measure is decided based on the incidence of these two groups. The chemicals recommended for managing the pod borers are given below (Anon,1999).
Spraying can be taken up based on Economic Threshold (ETL).For example , Maruca 3 /plant, Exalastis 5/plant. Whenever H. armigera is predominant apply NPV 500LE/ha to control the pest in the early stage. Apply any one of the following insecticides at 25 kg/ha. Endosulfan 4% D; quinalphos 4% D; carbaryl 5% D or spray endosulfan 35 EC 1250 ml., monocrotophos 625 ml/ha. Spraying of NSKE 5% twice followed by triazophos 0.05% is also effective. Application of Neem oil 2% and phosalone 0.07% has controlled the
pod borers and increased the yield. Recent studies have indicated that following IPM methods have controlled the pest and increased the yield.
1. Use of tolerant varieties
2. Installation of bird perches @ 50/ha
3. H.armigera pheromone trap @ 10/ha
4. Collection and destruction of fully grown larvae
5. Spraying NSKE 5% at 50% flowering
6. Spraying HaNPV at 500 LE/ha at 15 days after first spray
7. Application of the following insecticides at 15 days interval depending on the intensity of pest. Chlorpyriphos 0.05% or monocrotophos 0.04%
The status of IPM in redgram is detailed in Table 4. Suitable manipulation of the available technologies could result in an effective IPM technology (Lal and Katti,1998).
Table 4. The Status of IPM in redgram in India
S.No
IPM componnents
Insect Pests
H.armigera
M.obtusa
Others
I
Pest Monotoring
Economic Thresholds
Surveillance System
Forecasting
ϑ
ϑ
ϑ
ρ
ρ
ρ
ρ
ρ
ρ
II
Host Plant Resistance
Ecological Resistance
Genetic Resistance
4
ϑ
4
ϑ
ρ
ρ
III
Cultural Control
Manipulation of sowing date
Intercropping
ϑ
⎯
ϑ
⎯
ρ
ρ
IV
Chemical control
Effective Insecticides
Selective Insecticides
Timing of Insecticide Application
Minimum Effective Rates
Use of Plant Products
4
4
4
ϑ
4
4
4
ƒ
4
4
4
ϑ
V
Biological control
Augmentation of Natural Enemies (NE)
Prediction of NE effectiveness
Importation of NE
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ρ
ρ
ƒ
ρ
ρ
Use of Microbial Agents
4
ρ
ρ
4 Component available for use
ϑ Component available but more research needed for its
effectiveness
⎯ Component available but incompatible with other management
practices
ƒ Component not available but research currently being conducted
ρ Component neither available nor any research is being conducted
Reference
Anonymous, 1999. Crop Production Guide. Directorate of Agriculture, Chennai 600 005. pp 73–78.
Anonymous, 2000. Project Co–Ordinator Report 1999–2000, All India Coordinated Research Project on Pigeonpea. Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur –208 024. 9p.
Anonymous, 2000a. Pulse Production Technology, Centre for Plant Breeding and Genetics, TNAU, Coimbatore. 9p.
Bindra,O.S. and S.S.Jakhmola.1967.Incidence and losses caused by some pod infesting insects in different varieties of pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L) Millsp.) Indian J.Agric.Scientist., 37:177–188.
Durairaj,C. 1998.Seasonal incidence of pupal parasitods of pigeonpea pod fly in tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu. Indian J.Agric.Scientist., in Press.
Durairaj,C. and N.Ganapathy.1997.Evaluation of pigeonpea entries for their tolerance to pod borer complex in Tamil Nadu. Indian J.Agric.Scientist., 67(8):317–318.
Durairaj,C.,T.G.Shanower, V.R.Bhagwat, M.I.Khan and D.A..Dodia.1997. Relationship between insect abundance, damage, and yield loss in short duration pigeonpea (report of work) ICRISAT, Patancheru, India.10p.
Durairaj, C.1995. Ecology and management of Tur pod fly Melagromyza obtusa Mall.in pigeonpea.Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore. 120p.
Durairaj,C. 1999. Integrated Management for Pigeonpea pod borer Complex. Pestology, 100–115.
ICRISAT,1981. Annual Report for 1979–80. Patancheru, Hyderabad, India.342p.
ICRISAT,1989. Annual Report for 1998. Patancheru, Hyderabad, India.
ICRISAT,1990. Annual Report for 1989. Patancheru, Hyderabad, India.
Lal,S.S. and G.Katti.1998.IPM of Pod borer complex infesting pigeonpea. In:IPM System in Agriculture.Volume 4. Pulses , R.K.Upadhyay, K.G.Mukerji and R.L.Rajak (Eds.) Aditya Books Private Limited, New Delhi. pp 79–128.
Lateef,S.S.S1977. A new hymenopteran pest, Tanostigmodessp. (Hymennptera: Tanostigmatidae) recorede on pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan Millsp.)at ICRISAT, Hyderabad, India.Tropical Grain Legume, 7:6–7.
Lateef ,S.S. and M.P.Pimbert.1990.The search for host plant resistance to H.armigera in chickpea and pigeonpea at ICRISAT. Proc. First consultative Group Meeting on Host Selection behavior of H.armigera.5–7 May, 1990, ICRISAT centre, Patancheru, India.
Mohan,S. P.V.Subba Rao, and P.C.Sundara Babu. 1994. A new model trap for monitoring pigeopea pod fly International Chickpea and Pigeonpea News Letter, 1:42.
Rajagopalan, C.K. and J.A.Paul Devakumar.1965. Preliminary studies on the infestation of Agromyza obtusa Mall. In redgram (Cajanus cajan Linn.) Madras Agric.J. 58:345–346.
Sachan, J.N.1992.Present status of Helicoverpa armigera in pulses and strategies for its management.In: Sachan, J.N.(ed.) Helicoverpa Management. Current and future strategies .Proc. of first National Workshop held at Directorate of Pulses, Kanpur, 30–31 August,1990.
Sheriff, M.N. and C.K.Rajagopalan.1971.A comparative study of the intensity of infestation of the pod fly Melagromyza obtusa (Agromyzidae) Malloch on different varieties of the redgram (Cajanus cajan L.) Madras Agric.J.b 58:842–843.
Sithanatham,G., M.Balasubramanian and S.Chelliah. 1981.Cotrol of Heliothis armigera on red gram with NPV and Insecticides. Madras Agric.J. 68:417–420.
RECENT TRENDS IN SEED PRODUCTION IN PULSES
Dr.V. Krishnasamy1, Dr.V.Palanisamy2 and Dr.P. Srimathi3
India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the world accounting for 33 per cent of the world area and 22 per cent of world production of pulses. The domestic demand and consumption, however is much more than production mainly because pulses are a major source of protein for a large section of the vegetarian population in the country. The cultivation of pulses also provides of large quantity of green fodder, which serves as the nutritious food for the livestock. Besides their high nutritional value, pulse crops have unique characteristics of containing and restoring soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation. In Tamil Nadu, area wise, blackgram occupies predominant place next to greengram and redgram. The following practices may be adopted in different agro climatic zones for enhancing the pulses seed production by better utilization of the available resources.
Land requirement
The land should be fertile and should not have been grown with the same crop in the previous season. If grown, it should be the same variety, which was certified for the said class of seeds. The land should be free from volunteer plants.
Seeds and sowing
The seeds should be obtained from authenticated source with tag and bill. The off colour seeds should be removed from normal coloured, since they record lower germination. Only graded seeds should be used. In greengram and blackgram the hard seed percentage may exceed to 10 per cent at a time.
At that time seeds should be scarified with commercial sulphuric acid for 2 minutes and should be washed thoroughly and used for sowing. If the field is infected with Macrophomina sp. the seeds are to be treated with Trichoderma @ 4g kg-1.
1. Professor and Head, 2. Associate Professor, 3. Assistant Professor, Seed Science and Technology, TNAU, Coimbatore
Specific rhizobium strains (600 g ha-1 as seed treatment) may be used for all pulses for increasing the yield, for better nodulation and maintenance of
organic matter in the soil. Phosphobacteria @ 600 g ha-1 as seed treatment is recommended for increasing the phosphorus use efficiency.
The seeds have to be treated with thiram or captan @ 2.0 g kg-1 and insecticide carbaryl @ 200 mg kg-1 before sowing for early protection against diseases and insects.
Seed hardening-cum-invigouration treatment of pulses
The process of seed hardening followed by invigouration is given as a pre-sowing seed treatment. This treatment enables (or) helps the pulses seed to germinate early with the available soil moisture. The hardened-cum-invigourated seeds will withstand besides drought much sowing better than untreated seeds.
The invigouration process accelerates seedling growth and suppresses the weed growth. Better and early germination result in higher population per unit area and contribute for higher yield. Two seed management practices namely seed hardening and invigouration are combined in one process using cheap and easily available materials. The steps involved are:
Seed hardening - Pre-conditioning
The seeds are pre-conditioned by placing them in between two moist gunny bags for a period of 1 hr. The gunny bags are first soaked in water, then excess water is removed by squeezing and used for pre-conditioning. The seeds are spread to a depth of 1 to 2 cm on the gunny bag. After pre-conditioning the seeds are soaked in botanical solution as explained below:
Soaking and drying
The pre-conditioned seeds are soaked in aquous botanical leaf extracts of prosopis and pungam using 1% solution each and taken in 1:1 ratio or mixed in 1:1 ratio. For example, to prepare 1 lit. of botanical extract weigh 10 g in each of prosopis and pungam fresh leaves, macerate it to a paste and make up the volume to 1 lit. of water. Soak the pre-conditioned seeds in this prepared solution using 1:0.3 ratio. That is for 1 kg of seeds 300 ml of leaf extract. Gently stir this seeds occasionally to enable uniform absorption. After 1 hr. drain the solution and dry the seeds in the shade.
Invigouration
Following seed hardening the seeds are treated with halogen formulation at 3 g kg-1 of seed. Halogen formulation is prepared by taking 5 parts of pure bleaching powder with 4 parts of finely powdered chalk powder and 1 part of arappu leaf powder and mixed in a closed container. This treatment can be given to the seeds at the time of drying (when the surface moisture is removed) and then dried back to safe moisture level.
The treated seeds can be sown immediately or can be stored upto 1 week prior to sowing. Palanisamy and Jayaseelan (1998) found that pre-sowing seed treatments of redgram CV CO5 seeds with trichoderma @ 4 g kg-1 followed by Rhizobium culture inoculation at 24 hrs interval and subsequently pellating with ZnSo4 (100 mg kg-1) using gypsum (300 g) as carrier and maida 10% (50 ml) as adhesive resulted in higher germination, seedling group, vigour index and field emergence (Table 1).
Vijaya and Ponnusamy (1998) studied seed fortification and pelleting on crop growth and yield in black gram CV CO BG 282/1 and found that black gram seeds fortified with ZnSo4 (0.2%) + NaSo4 (0.2%) + Na2Mo4 (0.1%) and subsequently pelleting with DAP @ 120g kg-1 of seed registered higher yield and quality.
Table 1. Effect of seed treatment in redgram cv CO5
Treatments
Germination (%)
Root
Length
(cm)
Shoot Length (cm)
Vigour index
Field emergence (%)
ZnSo4(100ppm)+Thiram (2g)+Rhizobium
87.5
17.1
28.4
3978
84.0
ZnSo4+Trichoderma+
Rhizobium
88.5
17.7
28.6
4096
85.0
Trichoderma+Rhizobium +ZnSo4 Pellating
98.0
18.2
31.4
4687
91.0
Control
84.0
17.0
28.7
3906
83.0
CD
3.50
2.20
4.70
250.0
3.16
Table 2. Seed fortification and pelleting in black gram
Treatment
Number of seeds pod-1
Seed yield
(g plant-1)
100-seed weight (g)
Seed recovery (%)
Germination (%)
Control
5.7
4.8
3.60
90
94
Fortified with micro nutrient + pelleting DAP
6.3
5.6
3.80
94
96
CD
0.09
0.07
0.01
0.31
-
Mahaeswari (1996) found among the organic pelleting materials tested in soybean CV CO1, vermicompost @ 50 g kg-1 gave the best effect on germination, peedling growth, dry matter production and vigour index. The next best was the combination of vermicompost and pungam (Derris indica) leaf powder (1:1) @ 40 gkg-1.
Table 3. Seed pelleting with Vermicompost in soybean
Treatment
Germination (%)
Root length (cm)
Shoot length (cm)
Dry matter (mg SL-1)
Vigour Index
Impelleted
82
5.1
31.5
67
419
Vermicompost
98
11.6
27.2
109
1136
Vermicompost+Pungam leaf powder (1:1)
92
11.3
26.5
93
1039
CD
9.2
1.20
2.9
8.7
20.0
Maintenance of purity
To maintain the genetic purity and physical purity of seeds, rouging is to be done form vegetative phase to harvesting phase. The off types and volunteer plants are to be removed as and when they occur in the field based on leaf colour, stem colour, growth status, flower colour, pod colour, seed colour etc. In addition to the off types, the pest affected and mosaic virus affected plants should be removed.
Irrigation
The crop should be irrigated immediately after sowing and the life irrigation is given on third day. Subsequently irrigate the crop once in 10-15 days depending upon soil and climatic conditions. The flowering and pod formation stages are critical periods of irrigation. Water stagnation should be avoided at all stages.
Pre-harvest sanitation spray
To avoid bruchid (pulse beetle) infestation in the storage, the pulse crop should be sprayed with endosulfan or malathion 0.07 per cent two times at weekly interval before harvest. This treatment will minimize the egg laying by bruchid. Sasikala (1994) studied the effect of pre-harvest sanitation spraying of pesticides on seed yield and quality in cowpea CV CO4. The results revealed that pre-harvest spray of endosulfan (0.25%)+carbendazium (0.1%) two times that is at 30th and 45th after sowing recorded increased number of pods, pod yield, seed yield and seed quality. This treatment also recorded minimum bruchid incidence during storage.
Table 4. Pre-harvest sanitation spray in cowpea cv CO 4
Treatments
Pod Number/
plant
Seed Number/
pod
Pod yield / plant (g)
Seed Yield (g/Plant)
Germination (%)
Control
6.1
14.2
14.9
10.1
87.3
Endosulfon (0.25%)
8.1
13.0
17.8
11.1
93.3
Malathion (0.1%)
10.1
15.3
23.0
17.2
91.7
Carbendazium (0.1%)
9.0
15.7
23.2
15.9
94.7
Endosulfon+Carbendazium
12.8
16.9
28.8
20.8
95.7
Malathion+ Carbendaszium
8.8
15.3
25.3
16.2
93.3
CD
1.01
NS
3.40
2.50
1.91
Patrick Jasper (1998) studied the effect of pre-harvest sanitation spray on seed yield and quality in pea. The results showed that the seed yield and quality characters were found to be higher in the plots sprayed with endosulfon 0.1 per cent three times at 10 days interval before harvesting.
Table 5. Pre-harvest sanitation spray in peas
Treatment
Seeds pod-1
Seed yield g plant–1
Germination (%)
Vigour index
Bruchid infestation (%)
No spray
5.5
11.3
67
1102
11.3
Endosulfon
6.5
18.4
83
1197
1.7
CD
0.8
0.7
3.8
54.0
0.31
Harvesting
Harvest the pods when they attain the physiological maturity. The pod colour turns straw colour on the crop. Discard the terminal pods, as they invariably contain immature and diseased seeds. The seed moisture content at this stage will be about 15 per cent. Dry the pods to render them just brittle and flail them with pliable bamboo stick to separate the seeds. Rain at the time of harvest may enhance the occurrence of off coloured seeds and result in poor seed quality. These seeds are to be removed.
Seed processing
The pods are dried to 12-13 per cent moisture content and then they are threshed and precleaned. The seeds should be size graded using recommended sieve for homogenising the seed lot.
Seed treatment
The graded seeds can be further dried to 7-8 per cent moisture content and treated with following materials in the order of preference:
• thiram or captan @ 2g + carbaryl @ 200 mg kg-1 of seed for safe
storage.
• Activated clay @ 1 kg 100-1 kg of seeds may be dry dressed for grain cum seed storage use.
Hybrid seed production in redgram for COPH 2
The tool employed for production of hybrid seed is by genetic male sterility system (GMS) where the male sterility is maintained in heterozygous stage. Following the test cross principle, these would be fertile and sterile plants in the ratio of 1:1 in male sterile production. COPH 1 and COPH 2 are the two redgram hybrids released from TNAU.
Planting ratio
For hybrid seed production in COPH 2, a ratio of 4:2 or 6:2 or 4:1 or male sterile; pollen parent is to be adopted depending upon the honey bee activity. If the honey bee activity is above normal, a ratio of 4:1 can be followed. If the honeybee activity is very less a ratio of 4:2 may be adopted. If the activity is moderate adopt 6:2 ratio.
Harvesting
Somu (1995) conducted experiments to standardize optimum planting ratio and effect of pickings on seed yield and quality in redgram hybrid ICPH 8. The results revealed that pod set percentage, pod number seed yield per plant and per row were on par up to three rows adjacent to the male row on either side. The hybrid seed yield was significantly higher upto three female rows in either side of male row indicating that the optimum planting ratio for ICPH 8 pigeon pea hybrid seed production is 1:6 (male: female). The picking wise study revealed that the pod number, pod yield, seed yield and quality showed a decreasing trend from first to third picking.
Table 6. Optimum planting ratio for ICPH 8 hybrid
Seed yield
Seed yield
Collect the pods from the female parent i.e., male sterile parent. This will give the hybrid seeds. Male and female rows can be identified by putting colour bamboo stakes.
Female row (R)
Germination
Isolation distance
An isolation distance 200 m for foundation class and 100m for certified class is to be followed.
Sowing
Both the parents are to be sown simultaneously. Sow two rows of pollen parent all around the entire plot. Sowing should be done during Ist fortnight of June or 1st fortnight of December.
Rogueing
In male sterile line or female parent,
1. Remove the off type plants
2. Remove the male fertile plant by examining the colour of the anthers (yellow) at the time of first flower formation. The plants with translucent white anthers (sterile) alone are retained in the female rows. This operation should be completed in 7-10 days interval till completion of flowering by daily visit.
3. Remove the late flowering and early flowering plants
In male fertile line or pollen parent,
1. Remove all the off type plants
2. Remove the immature pods set in the plants from time to time to induce continuous flowering and to aware the pollen availability.
(g Plant–1)
(g row-1)
(%)
R1
17.8
89
995
R2
17.4
89
991
R3
16.8
987
87
10.9
692
86
R5
9.0
537
86
R6
4.7
294
86
R7
4.8
290
87
CD
1.3
20.0
NS

R4
Vasantha (1995) studied the better of seed size on seed quality in pigeon hybrid CoH1 and its parents. The results revealed that the pollen and seed parents, ICPL 87109 and MST 21, are large and small seeded genotypes while the hybrid is a medium sized seed. The seed lots of hybrid and its pollen parent can be processed using 12/64 "round perforated sieve while the seed parent with 10/64" sieve in order to get quality seeds with higher germination and vigour.
Table 7. Seed certification standards for pulses
Field standards
Foundation class
Certified class
Isolation distance for redgram (m)
200
100
For others (m)
10
5
Specific requirements
Off types
0.10%
0.20%
*Plants affected by seed borne disease
0.10%
0.20%
Seed standards factors
Pure seed (minimum)
98.0%
98.0%
Inert matter (maximum)
2.0%
2.0%
Other crop seeds (maximum)
5/kg
10/kg
Weed seeds (maximum)
5/kg
10/kg
Other distinguishable varieties (maximum)
5/kg
10/kg
Germination including hard seeds (minimum)
75%
75%
Moisture (maximum)
9.0%
9.0%
containers (maximum)
8.0%
8.0%
* Seed borne diseases are: Ashy stem blight (Macrophomina phaseoli), anthracrose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum), scochyta blight, cowpea mosaic, Halo blight (Pseudomonas phasiolicola), Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas spp.)
Seed storage and treatment techniques in pulses
Storage is the basic preservation of material for further usage. This occupies special importance in seed since seeds are to be viable at the time of usage for sowing. Seeds undergo irreversible physical, physiological and biochemical deteriorative changes during storage. Seed treatments are the management practices, which can prolong the shelf life of seed by mitigating the deteriorative changes. The seed treatments employed for the said purpose can be broadly classified into pre-storage and mid-storage treatments.
I. PRE-STORAGE SEED TREATMENT
These treatments are given to seeds before storage for safe and protective storage of seeds. These treatments reduce the deterioration of seed caused by external and internal factors.
The factors influencing seed treatment are; 1. Moisture content of seed 2. Initial infestation of insects and fungi 3. Kind of seed 4. Selection of chemical 5. Storage environment and 6. Storage period.
1. Pre-sanitation spray
The treatment influence can be exalted by protecting the crop at field itself from bruchids by implementing the pre-harvest sanitation spray at field 10 days before harvest with 0.07% endosulphan as a preventive dose to storage insects especially the bruchids.
2. Seed treatment with activated clay
The seeds are treated with activated clay (Burnt China clay) @ 1:100 ratio as dry mix. Due to abrasive action the infestation by bruchids is minimized and seeds are protected from bruchids.
3. Seed treatment with botanicals
The seeds are treated with botanical leaf powder such as neem, notchi, pungam, sambangi, arappu @ 1:100 ratio as dry mix and are stored under ambient conditions. The leaf powders act as repellent to insects and their invasion is prevented. Sikkai and soapnut fruit rind are also used as a repellents for the storage of seeds. Vasambu and turmeric rhizome powder are also used for dry mixing with seed to protect against deterioration of seed by internal and external factors. It is a low cost and no cost indigenous technologies for short-term seed storage.
4. Seed treatment with red earth
Seed are coated or mixed with red earth @ 1:100 ratio and is used to prevent the insect emergence with preventive action.
5. Seed treatment with oils
Seeds are treated with neem oil, coconut oil, groundnut oil, castor oil, pungam oil @ 1:100 ratio as repellents. The slippery nature of oil gives 100% protection against insects. Among the oils, neem oil is the best.
6. Seed fumigation
Seeds are dried to below 10% moisture and fumigated with celphos @ 3 g/m3 for a period of 7 days. This prevents the primary and secondary infestations of bruchids.
7. Seed treatment with insecticides and fungicides
Seeds are dried to low moisture content (8-10%) and treated with fungicide and insecticides either alone or in combinations.
The fungicides used are thiram or captan or carbandazim. These are mixed with seed @ 2 g kg-1 of seed either as dry mix or as slurry treatment. The fungicides are diluted with 5 ml of water per kilogram of seed, mixed with seed, shade dried and stored.
The insecticides such as monocrotophos, chloropyriphos are treated in liquid form, where 2.4 ml of the insecticide is mixed with one kilogram of seed.
Carboryl 50% dust or carboryl 50% WP. is the insecticide commonly used as dry mix and slurry @ 200 mg kg-1 of seed along with fungicide to protect the seed both from storage fungi and insects.
Malathion and Decis is also used for seed treatment @ 0.06 and 0.04 ml kg-1 of seed respectively (slurry) to protect the seed both from insects and fungi in addition to provide a check against natural deterioration.
8. Seed treatment with Halogen mixture
Seed treatment with chlorine and iodine based halogen mixture to protect the seed from free radicle formation, which is the deteriorative factor occurring in seed senescence and aging. This halogen treatments quench the
free radicle and slow down the natural deteriorative nature of the seed. Chlorine based halogen mixture is prepared by mixing Calcium chloride (bleaching powder), Calcium carbonate and arappu leaf powder in 5:4:1 ratio. The dosage for seed treatment is 3 g kg-1 of seed either as dry mix or as slurry treatment.
9. Repeated sun drying
Moisture content is the factor that influences the internal deterioration and external biotic organism in seed. By repeated sun drying of seed once in 2 months to keep the moisture content of seed to 7-8% will protect the seed. The storability can be extended to more than a year.
10. Seed storage godown sanitation sprays
The seeds are invaded by the insects as secondary infestation in the unhygienic seed storage. Spraying of bags and walls of storage godown with malathion and nuvan can prevent the secondary infestation and preserve the seeds for longer duration.
10. Selection of packaging material
The seeds devoid of primary infestation and dried to below 8 per cent can be stored for longer duration, when packed in moisture vapour proof containers. This type of storage protects the seed from external and internal deteriorating factors. The polyvinyl and 600 gauge polyethylene bags also give better protection against insects compared to gunny and cloth bags.
II. MID-STORAGE CORRECTION TREATMENTS
The seeds stored in godown can also be checked for the storability / deteriorative nature in the middle and can be corrected by the adoption of any of the following methods.
1. Water flotation technique
When the seeds are infected with bruchids, they may be floated in water to assess the insect activity. They can be further minimized by fumigation or by seed treatment.
2. Moisture equilibrium technique
Pulse seeds which have the hydrophilic protein, can not respond to hydration-dehydration technique. Hence, seeds are moisture equilibrated to raise the moisture content above 20 per cent and then they are dried back to original moisture content. Seed may also be sprayed with water and dried back to original moisture
content. This helps in quenching of the free radicles present in the deteriorating seed. Halogen treatment can also be used as a mid-storage treatment where the halogen is utilized for quenching the free radicles.
Adoption of these seed treatment technique either individually or in combination, can preserve the pulse seeds and prolong its life for longer duration.
References
Maheswari,R.(1996). Seed production technology in soybean under rice fallow and methods to control seed detenoration in soybean CV Co1 (Glycine max L.) Merrill) M.Sc. (Ag) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore-3.
Palanisamy, V. and K.Jayaseelan (1998). Effect of pre-sowing seed treatments on seed quality in redgram. MAJ.85(10-12): 612-614.
Patrick Jasper (1998). Studies on seed production and storage aspects of pea (Pisum sativum L.) M.Sc (Ag) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore-3.
Sasikala, K. 1994. Studies on the influence of pre-harvest spraying of pesticides on seed yield and quality in cowpea CV Co4. M.Sc (Ag) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore-3.
Somu, G.(1995). Studies on certain aspects of seed production in pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.) hybrid ICPH 8 M.Sc (Ag) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore-3.
Vasantha, R. (1995). certain seed technological studies in the piegon pea (cajanus cajan (L) Millsp) hybrid Co H1 and its parental lines M.Sc (Ag) Thesis, TNAU, Coimbatore-3.
Vijaya, J. and A.S. Ponnusamy (1998). Studies on seed fortification and pelleting in blackgram. Madras Agric. J., 85 (10-12):549-552.