Seed Production in Oilseeds

Directorate of Oilseeds Research isthe only organization exclusivelycommitted topromotegreater
productivity and profitability of oilseedcrops, viz sunflower,safflowerandcastorwiththesimultaneous concernfor public health, protection ofenvironment and sustenance of theirproduction. DOR had its beginning asthe All India Coordinated ResearchProject on Oilseeds in April 1967 அண்ட் subsequently elevated to the status of Directorate on 1 August 1977. At thisDirectorate, molecular markers havebeen developed for assessing thegenetic purity of hybrids in sunflower and castor

1. Seed Production in Oilseeds
Oilseed crops occupy a major area under
cultivation next to cereals in India and cultivated
both under irrigated and rainfed conditions. One
of the major factors for the poor spread of high
yielding varieties and hybrids for yield
enhancement is non-availability of quality seed.
Further, hybrid seed production is highly skilled
and crop and location-specific and the ICAR and
SAUs have developed low input cost hybrid seed
production technology for all important annual
oilseed crops where heterosis has been exploited.
The course aims to acquaint the scientists, subject
matter specialists and technical personnel of
public and private sector, seed producing agencies
about the latest technology on production of
various classes of seed in oilseed crops.
Faculty
Principal and Sr. Scientists of the institute will
constitute the faculty.
Course Contents
● Imparting skills both in theoretical and practical
aspects on maintenance and breeder seed
production of varieties and the parental lines of
hybrids of various oilseed crops.
● Production and protection technology, certified
hybrid seed production, post-harvest
management, seed certification standards,
genetic purity assessment, etc.
● Lectures on breeding, seed technology, agronomy,
pathology and entomology in the respective crops
and field visits, group discussions and practicals.
Course Director : Dr A J Prabhakaran
Principal Scientist (Pl. Breeding)
Duration : 3 weeks
Course fee : US $ 3000 per trainee
No. of trainees : 15–20
per course
Accommodation : Institute’s Guest House/Hotel in
City
Eligibility : Scientists, Subject matter
specialists and Technical
personnel engaged in seed
production and research
30 ICAR International Training Programmes 2010
2. Hybrid Purity Assessment using Molecular Markers in
Sunflower, Safflower and Castor
It is well known that the success of improved
variety/ hybrid in the farmers’ fields depends upon
the availability of seeds with high genetic purity
and seeds of provenance is the most critical input
which decides the effect of all other inputs in
increasing the productivity. Therefore, assessing
the genetic purity is of utmost importance before
the seed reaches the farmers field. Also, in the
context of IPR, identification of the cultivar has
assumed increased significance. Conventionally,
the purity of seeds is assessed using morphological
markers in the field-based ‘Grow-Out-Test’ (GOT).
However, this method has several disadvantages
including the environmental influence, limited
variability observed for the characters,
subjectivity, etc. DNA-based markers hold greater
promise with several advantages, viz. high
polymorphism, insensitivity to environment,
stability, developmental stage independence etc.
Several molecular markers have been developed
and used successfully for varietal discrimination.
Once the specific molecular markers are identified
for each variety or hybrid, they could be used
successfully to assess the genetic purity and thus
could avoid the laborious GOT.
Faculty
Principal and Senior scientists of the Directorate
having expertise in different disciplines will
constitute the faculty.
Course Contents
● Isolation of genomic DNA
● Quantification of genomic DNA
● Gel electrophoresis
● Screening of RAPD primers to identify the markers
giving robust PCR profiles
● Identification of male specific RAPD marker
● Validation of identified RAPD markers at individual
plant level
● Screening of SSR primers to identify male specific
markers
● Validation of the identified SSR marker at
individual plant
Course Director : Dr V Dinesh Kumar
Sr. Scientist (Bio-technology)
Duration : 2 weeks
Course fee : US $ 2700 per trainee
No. of trainees : 8–10
per course
Accommodation : Institute’s Guest House/Hotel in
City
Eligibility : Scientists, Subject matter
specialists and Technical
personnel engaged in seed
certification and purity
assessment

2. Hybrid Purity Assessment using Molecular Markers in
Sunflower, Safflower and Castor
It is well known that the success of improved
variety/ hybrid in the farmers’ fields depends upon
the availability of seeds with high genetic purity
and seeds of provenance is the most critical input
which decides the effect of all other inputs in
increasing the productivity. Therefore, assessing
the genetic purity is of utmost importance before
the seed reaches the farmers field. Also, in the
context of IPR, identification of the cultivar has
assumed increased significance. Conventionally,
the purity of seeds is assessed using morphological
markers in the field-based ‘Grow-Out-Test’ (GOT).
However, this method has several disadvantages
including the environmental influence, limited
variability observed for the characters,
subjectivity, etc. DNA-based markers hold greater
promise with several advantages, viz. high
polymorphism, insensitivity to environment,
stability, developmental stage independence etc.
Several molecular markers have been developed
and used successfully for varietal discrimination.
Once the specific molecular markers are identified
for each variety or hybrid, they could be used
successfully to assess the genetic purity and thus
could avoid the laborious GOT.
Faculty
Principal and Senior scientists of the Directorate
having expertise in different disciplines will
constitute the faculty.
Course Contents
● Isolation of genomic DNA
● Quantification of genomic DNA
● Gel electrophoresis
● Screening of RAPD primers to identify the markers
giving robust PCR profiles
● Identification of male specific RAPD marker
● Validation of identified RAPD markers at individual
plant level
● Screening of SSR primers to identify male specific
markers
● Validation of the identified SSR marker at
individual plant
Course Director : Dr V Dinesh Kumar
Sr. Scientist (Bio-technology)
Duration : 2 weeks
Course fee : US $ 2700 per trainee
No. of trainees : 8–10
per course
Accommodation : Institute’s Guest House/Hotel in
City
Eligibility : Scientists, Subject matter
specialists and Technical
personnel engaged in seed
certification and purity
assessment

3. Recent Advances in Production Technology of
Oilseed crops
Horizontal expansion of area under oilseeds is
limited due to the declining per capita arable land
and competing crops. Many efficient cropping
systems involving oilseeds have been identified for
different agro-ecological regions of the country.
Many newer and non-traditional areas, such as
paddy-fallows offer great potential for extending
profitable cultivation of oilseeds. The requirement
of production factors for cropping systems differs
from that of managing the sole crops. Concerted
research efforts in working with many aspects of
oilseeds including cropping systems have resulted
in identification of location-specific technologies.
Adopting recommended oilseeds production
technologies in cropping system would result in
efficient resource utilization and crop production
with economic gain and sustainability.
Faculty
Principal and Senior scientists of the institute will
constitute the faculty
Course Contents
● Lectures on concepts of cropping systems
● Choice of varieties/hybrids, fertilizer
management, weed, insect pest and disease
management including economics of oilseeds
raised under monocrop, intercrop and sequential
cropping systems in diversified agro-ecological
situations
Course Director : Dr S N Sudhakara Babu, Principal
Scientist (Agronomy)
Duration : 3 weeks
Course fee : US $ 3000 per trainee
No. of trainees : 15–20
per course
Accommodation : Institute’s Guest House/Hotel in
City
Eligibility : Agronomists involved in oilseed
based cultural management
programmes

\
4. Bio-intensive Integrated Pest Management in Oilseed
crops
Spodoptera, Heliothis, jassids, Alternaria and
downy mildew are the major insect pests and
diseases of sunflower. Red hairy caterpillar and
semilooper are the major insect pests and wilt
and Macrophomina root rot are the major diseases
of castor. Wilt, Alternaria and aphids are the major
biotic stresses of safflower. These pests pose a
serious threat to the production of these oilseed
crops. In the recent past, the over reliance and
indiscriminate use of pesticides has led to acquired
pesticide resistance in pests, pest resurgence and
development of secondary pests besides
environmental pollution and various health
hazards. The plausible approach is therefore, the
Integrated Pest Management to minimize the
problem of various pests.
Course Contents
● Theoretical lectures on concept of IPM; IPM
approaches in Sunflower, Castor and Safflower
etc.; use of bio-control and microbial agents,
botanical pesticides; management of weeds etc.
● Interactions, group discussions, field visits and
practicals
Course Director : Dr. Harvir Singh, Principal
Scientist (Agril. Entomology) and
Head (Crop Protection)
Duration : 3 weeks
Course fee : US $ 3000 per trainee
No. of trainees : 15–20
per course
Accommodation : Institute’s Guest House/Hotel in
City
Eligibility : Research workers, extension
personnel involved in crop
protection measures in oilseeds

5. Hands on Training on Mass Production and Quality
Testing of Various Bio-pesticides/Bio-agents
The approach to insect pest and disease
management has seen a significant change over
the years from chemical control to integrated pest
management (IPM) with emphasis currently on Biointensive
integrated pest management (BIPM). The
shift in this paradigm is an outcome of the
continuing search for eco-friendly pest
management strategies driven by the impact of
the ill-effects of injudicious use of chemical
pesticides on human health and environment. The
immediate need for sustainable, eco-friendly pest
management has been felt very strongly providing
an impetus to research and development of
microbial pesticides. Majority of the microbial
pesticides can be easily multiplied on artificial
media with an immense scope for ensuring their
timely availability - a pre-requisite for their
effective integration into the BIPM modules. It is
in this context that expertise development for
effective handling and exploitation of the potential
microbial agents gains utmost importance.
Faculty
Principal and Senior scientists of the institute form
the faculty.
Course Contents
● Lectures on the potential microbial agents
● Hands on training on various microbial techniques
- Isolation, identification, maintenance and
storage
● Mass multiplication of Bacillus thuringiensis,
entomopatho-genic fungi (Nomuraea rileyi,
Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae etc.),
fungal and bacterial anatagonists for plant disease
management (Trichoderma spp and Pseudomonas
spp)
● Fermentation and downstream processing
● Formulation and quality testing
● Characterization through morphological and
molecular techniques
● Interactions, group discussions and visits to
microbial agents production units
Course Director : Dr P S Vimala Devi, Principal
Scientist (Agril. Entomology)
Duration : 3 weeks
Course fee : US $ 3000 per trainee
No. of trainees : 15–20
per course
Accommodation : Institute’s Guest House/Hotel in
City
Eligibility : Scientists, subject matter
specialists and technical
personnel involved in microbial
control of crop

coconut damage leaf rhinoceros beetle

oconut damage leaf rhinoceros beetle

oconut damage leaf rhinoceros beetle

rhinoceros beetle

I. Rhinoceros Beetle

I. Rhinoceros Beetle






Symptoms
The adult beetle bores into the unopened fronds and spathes.
Attacked fronds when fully opened show characteristic geometric cuts

Control measures
Hook out the beetle from the attacked palms using beetle hook.
As a prophylactic measure, fill up the top most three leaf axils with Sevidol 8G(25g) + fine sand (200g) thrice in April, September and December.
OR
Place 10.5g naphthalene balls in the leaf axils and cover it with fine sand.
To be practiced once in 45 days.
Spraying 0.01% Carbaryl (50WP) in the breeding sites of the beetle help destroy the larva.
Biological control using the virus Baculovirus oryctus (release 10 - 15 virus infected beetles in 1 ha)


AND
green muscardine fungus, Metarrizhium anisopliae (spray 250ml Metarrizhium culture + 750ml water in manure pits and other breeding sites of the beetle)
Practice clean cultivation.
Video Film on Integrated management of Rhinoceros Beetle

________________________________________




Rhinoceros beetle

Three stages from larva to adult'
Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Insecta

Order: Coleoptera

Family: Scarabaeidae

Subfamily: Dynastinae
MacLeay, 1819







II. Red Palm Weevil
Symptoms
Presence of holes on the stem, oozing out of viscous brown fluid and extrusion of chewed up fibres through the hole.
Some times the gnawing sound produced by the feeding grubs will be audible.
In the advanced stage of infestation yellowing of the inner whorl of leaves occur.
The crown falls down or dry up later when palm is dead.

Control measures
Practice clean cultivation by cutting and removing palms already damaged and the decaying stumps in the garden. Such palms should be split open and the different stages of pest inside burned off.
Avoid injury to the trunk as the pest lay eggs in these wounds. Wounds if any, should be pasted with a mixture of carbaryl / Thiodan and soil. While cutting leaves, retain at least 1m of petiole.
Use pheromone trap for attracting weevils and kill the collected ones.
If rhinoceros beetle attack is prevalent, follow the recommended measures.
Use fungicides if leafrot / bud rot is noticed as the weevil lays eggs in such palms.
Inject attacked palms with 0.1% Endosulfan (3ml / litre water) or 1% Carbaryl (20gm/litre). Plug the holes in damaged region and pour the insecticide suspension into a slanting hole made above the damaged portion using a funnel. Then plug this hole also. If needed repeat after one week.




Rhynchophorus ferrugineus

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Insecta

Order: Coleoptera

Family: Curculionidae

Genus: Rhynchophorus

Species: R. ferrugineus


XI. Slug Caterpillar
(Leucopholis coneophora Burm.) (Melolonthinae: Coleoptera)

Symptoms
The white grubs are mostly found in sandy loam tracts of Kerala and Karnataka. It damage the roots. In seedling, it tunnels in to the bole and collar region.
It has an annual life cycle with a grub period of 8 months. Peak grub population is observed from Sept. to Oct. Adult beetles emerge out of the soil after pre- monsoon showers in May-June during sunset hours.

Control measures
Plouging and digging of soil during pre and post monsoon period will expose the insect for predation.
Collection and destruction of the adult beetles during May-June.
Setting up light traps to attract adult beetles.
Application of phorate 10G @ 100g per palm should be mixed and raked in the top 15cm soil in May-June and Sept.-Oct. is recommended in coastal and Malanad areas. Irrigation is necessary after the pesticide application.




IX. White Grub
(Leucopholis coneophora Burm.) (Melolonthinae: Coleoptera)

Symptoms
The white grubs are mostly found in sandy loam tracts of Kerala and Karnataka. It damage the roots. In seedling, it tunnels in to the bole and collar region.
It has an annual life cycle with a grub period of 8 months. Peak grub population is observed from Sept. to Oct. Adult beetles emerge out of the soil after pre- monsoon showers in May-June during sunset hours.

Control measures
Plouging and digging of soil during pre and post monsoon period will expose the insect for predation.
Collection and destruction of the adult beetles during May-June.
Setting up light traps to attract adult beetles.
Application of phorate 10G @ 100g per palm should be mixed and raked in the top 15cm soil in May-June and Sept.-Oct. is recommended in coastal and Malanad areas. Irrigation is necessary after the pesticide application.

________________________________________

image

High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)

High Pressure Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) (Sometimes 'High Performance')Research with thin-layer and column chromatography showed that separations are much more effective when the stationary phase is a very thin layer on the surface of very small and very uniform spherical beads. However, resistance to flow of the mobile phase is very much higher, and in order to get a useful flow of a liquid mobile phase, e. g., 1 - 3 milliliters/minute, pressures of around 15 Mpa (about 2,000 psi) must be applied to the mobile phase. It is possible to apply such pressure from a cylinder of compressed gas, but most systems use a reciprocating piston pump or diaphragm pump with some means of damping the pressure fluctuations from the piston. The sample is usually dissolved in the mobile phase before injection. Columns are typically 4.6 mm ID (6 mm OD) stainless steel tubing 250 mm long. A typical packing will have octadecylsilyl (C18-Si-) (ODS) groups bonded to 5 µm silica beads. The packing is held inside the column by “frits”, discs with pores about 0.5 µm in diameter.
Liquid-liquid chromatography began with samples dissolved in organic solvents and a stationary phase of water adsorbed on particles or fibers of the solid support. More generally, the stationary phase was more “polar” than the mobile phase. That is the so-called "normal phase" chromatography. But stationary phases such as ODS have been particularly useful for separating samples dissolved in water (and most HPLC is now done with bonded phases). Liquid chromatography with the stationary phase less polar than the mobile phase is called “reverse phase”, but is now the common situation. The mobile phase is very often not just water but a mixture of water with methanol (CH3OH) or acetonitrile (CH3CN). “Solvent programming”, a stepwise or continuous change (gradient elution) of the mobile phase composition, is used to speed up separations, like temperature programming in gas chromatography.
“Chiral”columns have been developed relatively recently to separate optical isomers. This separation is important because many pharmaceuticals are active in only one chiral form. For instance, natural Vitamin E is D-a-tocopherol, while half of synthetic Vitamin E is the less active L- isomer.
As in gas chromatography, a few microliters of the solution are measured into a “sample loop” on an “injector”. When the injector is operated, the sample loop is suddenly switched into the flow of mobile phase just before it reaches the column. The mobile phase leaving the column passes immediately into a “detector” which is used to determine the presence and concentration of a solute.
Because the pressure on the mobile phase drops rapidly as it leaves the column, bubbles may form from dissolved gases. Chromatographers “degas” the mobile phase before use by boiling it, ultrasonic treatment, bubbling helium through it to flush out other gases, or applying a vacuum.
There are no relatively inexpensive HPLC detectors as sensitive and broadly useful as the flame ionization and electron capture detectors used in gas chromatography. A refractive index (RI) detector responds to most components, but is not very sensitive. An ultraviolet (UV) detector is quite sensitive for molecules which absorb ultraviolet light, and a variable wavelength UV detector can be set to the absorption maximum for a particular molecule of interest, or to a short wavelength where most molecules absorb. A diode array detector (DAD) disperses the transmitted light into a spectrum, providing an absorption spectrum of each component that absorbs ultraviolet light. Still more sensitive, and still less general, is the fluorescence detector which measures fluorescence emitted from components which have absorbed ultraviolet light. There are various special-purpose detectors. Amperometric systems measure electron flow which oxidizes or reduces certain components (sugars, for instance), and polarimetric detectors, generally not very sensitive, detect components are optically active. Mass spectrometric detectors are now used, but were late to arrive because it was difficult to separate the mobile phase molecules so as to maintain adequate vacuum in the mass spectrometer.
Special case: Supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC). Liquids can vaporize, and gases can condense to the liquid phase. Both changes depend on the pressure and temperature. Every gas has a critical temperature above which it cannot be condensed at any pressure. The critical pressure is the pressure required at the critical temperature. If a liquid (such as a condensed gas) is warmed, under high pressure, to the critical temperature and beyond, strange things happen. The boundary between gas and liquid vanishes, and it is best not to ask physical chemists too many questions about the remaining phase, the “supercritical fluid”. Whatever their exact nature, supercritical fluids can be very useful solvents for HPLC, which runs under high pressure anyway. The most commonly used of these fluids is carbon dioxide. (Supercritical fluids are also useful for extracting things from solids, and, when the solids are clothing, for dry cleaning.)
Reports and procedures will specify the mobile phase composition, flow rate and perhaps the pressure; the column dimensions; the column packing (particle type and size; coating); the detector and its operating conditions (e. g., wavelengths for UV and fluorescence detectors), integrator settings, and, somewhere, retention times.
There are some kinds of liquid chromatography that do not fit the partition or adsorption models very well. They are often done in simple vertical columns.
Gel chromatography: The mobile phase carries sample through a gel, such as agar or polyacrylamide. Small molecules pass through quickly. The larger molecules cannot get through as quickly, and are separated by size. Various kinds of gels are used for polar (aqueous) or nonpolar mobile phases. Sometimes these gels are called “molecular sieves”, but they are not the Molecular Sieves (tradename) used in gas-solid chromatography to separate gases.
Exclusion chromatography: The packing is made of porous beads. Small molecules diffuse into the pores and so do not move as fast as the mobile phase. The largest molecules cannot fit into the pores, and move with the solvent flow. If the beads are charged, ions of the same charge are repelled while those of opposite charge are attracted in ion exclusion chromatography.
Ion-pair chromatography: In liquid chromatography, strongly ionized sample components which would not partition into the liquid phase can be combined with large ions having the opposite charge [such as an alkyl sulfonate (negative) or a tetrabutylammonium (positive)] to produce “ion pairs” that act like a compound and will partition.
Affinity chromatography: This uses a specific “ligand” (such as an antigen) bonded to the stationary phase to separate a specific substance such as the corresponding antibody.
There are some special procedures and terms:
Headspace analysis: The sample is held for a time in a closed container, with a gas phase. Volatile molecules move from the sample into the gas phase, depending on their volatility. When the system has reached equilibrium, a sample of the gas phase is injected into a gas chromatograph, and the concentration in the gas phase (headspace) is used to determine the concentration in the liquid phase. Purge and trap: A relatively large volume of the liquid sample (perhaps a liter) is held in a container. A gas (e. g., helium) is bubbled through to sweep out the volatile molecules, and then passed through a short trap column containing some of the column packing (“solid phase”) which collects and concentrates the volatiles in a much smaller volume. Then the trap is heated rapidly and the volatiles are driven into the gas chromatograph.
Solid phase extraction (SPE): A relatively large volume of liquid sample is exposed to a small volume of a stationary phase that extracts and concentrates material from the sample. That material can then be redissolved and chromatographed.
Response factor: Detectors typically respond more strongly to some molecules than to others, so that peak size alone is not the best means of measuring quantities of individual components. Once the components have been identified, the analyst can chromatograph known amounts of individual materials to relate the peak size to quantity. The relationship is the “response factor”.
Area percent: The area of a specific peak divided by the total area of all the peaks. It is commonly used to report analysis results. Users should remember that response factors differ, so that area percent is not the same as weight percent, and that some components may not be detected at all by the detector used.

Panchakavya

1. Panchakavya
Panchagavya, an organic product has the potential to play the role of promoting growth and providing immunity in plant system. Panchagavya consists of nine products viz. cow dung, cow urine, milk, curd, jaggery, ghee, banana, Tender coconut and water. When suitably mixed and used, these have miraculous effects.
Cow dung - 7 kg
Cow ghee - 1 kg
Mix the above two ingredients thoroughly both in morning and evening hours and keep it for 3 days
Cow Urine - 10 liters
Water - 10 liters
After 3 days mix cow urine and water and keep it for 15 days with regular mixing both in morning and evening hours. After 15 days mix the following and panchagavya will be ready after 30 days.
Cow milk - 3 liters
Cow curd - 2 liters
Tender coconut water - 3 liters
Jaggery - 3 kg
Well ripened poovan banana – 12 nos.
Top
2. Preparation
All the above items can be added to a wide mouthed mud pot, concrete tank or plastic can as per the above order. The container should be kept open under shade. The content is to be stirred twice a day both in morning and evening. The Panchagavya stock solution will be ready after 30 days. (Care should be taken not to mix buffalo products. The products of local breeds of cow is said to have potency than exotic breeds). It should be kept in the shade and covered with a wire mesh or plastic mosquito net to prevent houseflies from laying eggs and the formation of maggots in the solution. If sugarcane juice is not available add 500 g of jaggery dissolved in 3 liter of water.
Physico chemical and biological properties of Panchagavya
Chemical composition
pH
:
5.45
EC dSm2
:
10.22
Total N (ppm)
:
229
Total P (ppm)
:
209
Total K (ppm)
:
232
Sodium
:
90
Calcium
:
25
IAA (ppm)
:
8.5
GA (ppm)
:
3.5
Microbial Load
Fungi
:
38800/ml
Bacteria
:
1880000/ml
Lactobacillus
:
2260000/ml
Total anaerobes
:
10000/ml
Acid formers
:
360/ml
Methanogen
:
250/ml
Physico-chemical properties of Panchagavya revealed that they possess almost all the major nutrients, micro nutrients and growth harmones (IAA & GA) required for crop growth. Predominance of fermentative microorganisms like yeast and lactobacillus might be due to the combined effect of low pH, milk products and addition of jaggery/sugarcane juice as substrate for their growth.
The low pH of the medium was due to the production of organic acids by the fermentative microbes as evidenced by the population dynamics and organic detection in GC analysis. Lactobacillus produces various beneficial metabolites such as organic acids, hydrogen peroxide and antibiotics, which are effective against other pathogenic microorganisms besides its growth. GC-MS analysis resulted in following compounds of fatty acids, alkanes, alconol and alcohols.
Sl.No.
Fatty acids
Alkanes
Alconol and Alcohols
1.
Oleic acids
Decane
Heptanol
2.
Palmitic acid
Octane
Tetracosanol
3.
Myristic
Heptane
Hexadecanol
4.
Deconore
Hexadecane
Octadeconol
5.
Deconomic
Oridecane
Methanol, Propanol, Butanol and Ethanol
6.
Octanoic


7.
Hexanoic


8.
Octadeconoic


9.
Tetradeconoic


10.
Acetic, propionic, butyric, caproic and valeric acids


Top
3. Beneficial effects of Panchakavya on commercial crops
Mango
Induces dense flowering with more female flowers
Irregular or alternate bearing habit is not experienced and continues to fruit regularly
Enhances keeping quality by 12 days in room temperature
Flavour and aroma are extraordinary
Acid lime
Continuous flowering is ensured round the year
Fruits are plumpy with strong aroma
Shelf life is extended by 10 days
Guava
Higher TSS
Shelf life is extended by 5 days
Banana
In addition to adding with irrigation water and spraying, 3% solution (100 ml) was tied up at the naval end of the bunch after the male bud is removed. The bunch size becomes uniform. One month earlier harvest was witnessed. The size of the top and bottom hands was uniformly big.
Turmeric
Enhances the yield by 22%
Extra long fingers
Ensure low drainage loss
Narrows the ratio of mother and finger rhizomes
Helps survival of dragon fly, spider etc which in turn reduce pest and disease load.
Sold for premium price as mother/seed rhizome
Enriches the curcumin content
Jasmine
Exceptional aroma and fragrance
No incidence of bud worm
Continuous flowering throughout the year
Vegetables
Yield enhancement by 18% and in few cases like Cucumber, the yield is doubled
Wholesome vegetables with shiny and appealing skin
Extended shelf life
Very tasty with strong flavour.
Generally panchagavya is recommended for all the crops as foliar spray at 30 % level (3 litre panchagavya in 100 litres of water).
Top
4. Recommended dosage
Spray system
3% solution was found to be most effective compared to the higher and lower concentrations investigated. Three litres of Panchagavya to every 100 litres of water is ideal for all crops. The power sprayers of 10 litres capacity may need 300 ml/tank. When sprayed with power sprayer, sediments are to be filtered and when sprayed with hand operated sprayers, the nozzle with higher pore size has to be used.
Flow system
The solution of Panchagavya can be mixed with irrigation water at 50 litres per hectare either through drip irrigation or flow irrigation
Seed/seedling treatment
3% solution of Panchagavya can be used to soak the seeds or dip the seedlings before planting. Soaking for 20 minutes is sufficient. Rhizomes of Turmeric, Ginger and sets of Sugarcane can be soaked for 30 minutes before planting.
Seed storage
3% of Panchagavya solution can be used to dip the seeds before drying and storing them.
Periodicity
1.
Pre flowering phase
:
Once in 15 days, two sprays depending upon duration of crops
2.
Flowering and pod setting stage
:
Once in 10 days, two sprays
3.
Fruit/Pod maturation stage
:
Once during pod maturation
Time of application of Panchakavya for different crops is given as follows
Crops
Time schedule
Rice
10,15,30 and 50th days after transpalnting
Sunflower
30,45 and 60 days after sowing
Black gram
Rainfed: 1st flowering and 15 deays after flowering Irrigated: 15, 25 and 40 days after sowing
Green gram
15, 25, 30, 40 and 50 days after sowing
Castor
30 and 45 days after sowing
Groundnut
25 and 30th days after sowing
Bhendi
30, 45, 60 and 75 days after sowing
Moringa
Before flowering and during pod formation
Tomato
Nursery and 40 days after transplanting: seed treatment with 1 % for 12 hrs
Onion
0, 45 and 60 days after transplanting
Rose
At the time of pruning and budding
Jasmine
Bud initiation and setting
Vanilla
Dipping setts before planting
Effect of Panchakavya
Leaf
Plants sprayed with Panchagavya invariably produce bigger leaves and develop denser canopy. The photosynthetic system is activated for enhanced biological efficiency, enabling synthesis of maximum metabolites and photosynthates.
Stem
The trunk produces side shoots, which are sturdy and capable of carrying maximum fruits to maturity. Branching is comparatively high.
Roots
The rooting is profuse and dense. Further they remain fresh for a long time. The roots spread and grow into deeper layers were also observed. All such roots help maximum intake of nutrients and water.
Yield
There will be yield depression under normal circumstances, when the land is converted to organic farming from inorganic systems of culture. The key feature of Panchagavya is its efficacy to restore the yield level of all crops when the land is converted from inorganic cultural system to organic culture from the very first year. The harvest is advanced by 15 days in all the crops.It not only enhances the shelf life of vegetables, fruits and grains, but also improves the taste. By reducing or replacing costly chemical inputs, Panchagavya ensures higher profit and liberates the organic farmers from loan.
Drought Hardiness
A thin oily film is formed on the leaves and stems, thus reducing the evaporation of water. The deep and extensive roots developed by the plants allow to withstand long dry periods. Both the above factors contribute to reduce the irrigation water requirement by 30% and to ensure drought hardiness.
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5. Panchagavya for animal health
Panchagavya is a living elixir of many micro organisms, bacteria, fungi, proteins, carbohydrates, fats, amino acids, vitamins, enzymes, known and unknown growth promoting factors micronutrients trace elements antioxidant and immunity enhancing factors.
When taken orally by animals and human beings, the living micro organisms in the Panchagavya stimulate the immune system and produce lot of antibodies against the ingested microorganisms. It acts like vaccine. This response of the body increases the immunity of animals and humans and thus helps to prevent illness and cures disease. It slows down the aging process and restores youthfulness. The other factors present in Panchagavya improve apetite, digestion and assimilation and elimination of toxins in the body. Constipation is totally cured. Thus the animals and humans become hale and healthy with shining hair and skin. The weight gains are impressive.
Pigs
Panchagavya was mixed with drinking water or feed at the rate of 10 ml – 50 ml/pig depending upon the age and weight. The pigs became healthy and disease free. They gained weight at a faster rate. The feed to weight conversion ratio increased tremendously. This helped the piggery owners to reduce the feed cost and to get very good returns due to increased weight.
Goats and Sheep
The goats and sheep became healthy and gained more weight in a short period after having administered 10 ml to 20 ml Panchagavya per animal per day depending upon the age.
Cows
By mixing Panchagavya with animal feed and water at the rate of 100 ml per cow per day, cows become healthier with increased milk yield, fat content and SNF. The rate of conception increased. The retained placenta, mastitis and foot and mouth disease became things of the past. Now the skin of the cow is shiny with more hair and looks more beautiful. Instead of spraying urea on paddy straw (hay) before staking, a few farmers sprayed the 3 percent solution of Panchagavya, layer after layer during the staking and allowed it to ferment. The cows preferred such hay compared to unsprayed hay stock.
Poultry
When mixed with the feed or drinking water at the rate of 1 ml per bird per day, the birds became disease-free and healthy. They laid bigger eggs for longer periods. In broiler chickens the weight gain was impressive and the feed-to-weight conversion ratio improved.
Fish
Panchagavya was applied daily with fresh cow dung in fish ponds. It increased the growth of algae, weeds and small worms in the pond, thus increasing the food availability to fish. The only precaution is that fresh water must be added to the ponds at frequent intervals. Otherwise, the growth of algae, weeds and other organisms will compete with the fish for available soluble oxygen in water. Alternatively, mechanical agitators can also be used to increase the oxygen content in the water. In ten months time each fish grew to a weight of 2 to 3 kgs. With reduced death rate of small fingerlings and increased weight of marketable fish, the fisheries became more profitable.
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6. Panchagavya for human health
One lady with psoriasis all over the body was under allopathic treatment for over one and a half years. She happened to prepare Panchagavya for field use and stir the contents with her forearm. After 15 days, the psoriasis in her fore arm got fully cured. Following her own intuition, she smeared Panchagavya all over the body and to everyone's surprise; the psoriasis disappeared in 21 days.
Dosage
50 ml of filtered Panchagavya mixed with 200 ml of water, tender coconut water or fruit juice and taken orally in empty stomach in the morning. This is for all type of diseases.
AIDS/HIV
AIDS/HIV patients regained lost appetite and digestion and put on weight. They slept better. Their fever, cough, diarrhoea and skin lesions disappeared within a month's treatment. Most of them are now working in the fields and others are pursuing their own professions. Even though the blood tests are still positive, they exhibit no symptoms of AIDS and lead a normal healthy life.
Psoriasis
In Psoriasis, it is very effective and the lesions disappear within six months. In eczema and other allergic skin disorders, healing is even faster.
Neurological disorders
When given to patients suffering from neurological disorders like convulsions and Parkinsonism, it helped to reduce the frequency of the attacks in convulsions and reduced shaking of the hands and head in Parkinsonism. They were able to reduce the regular medicines.
Diabetes mellitus
When 50 ml of filtered Panchagavya per day was taken early in the morning on an empty stomach, it reduced the blood sugar and enabled the patients to reduce the dose of anti diabetic drugs. Complaints like general weakness, indigestion, constipation and burning sensation in the feet disappeared within a month. They became active and healthy.
Pulmonary Tuberculosis
It can be given in addition to the regular anti-TB drugs. Fever disappeared within a week and cough was controlled within two weeks. Appetite improved and the patients gained body weight. The duration of anti-TB treatment was reduced by one month.
Arthritis
It completely relieves the joint pain, swelling and stiffness. Arthritis is cured within two months. Now even healthy people take it to become more healthy and energetic.
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7. Cost and availability of Panchakavya
Cost
Availability
Cost of Panchakavya = Rs.40/Lit.
Professor and Head Department of Environmental SciencesTamil Nadu Agricultural UniversityCoimbatore – 641 003Phone: 0422 6611252Fax: 0422 6611242Email:environment@tnau.ac.in

RHIZOBIUM AND PHOSPHOBACTERIA: AN AVENUE FOR INCREASING PRODUCTIVITY IN PULSES

RHIZOBIUM AND PHOSPHOBACTERIA: AN AVENUE FOR INCREASING PRODUCTIVITY IN PULSES
Dr.S.Gunasekaran1 and Dr.D.Balachandar2
Rhizobium: An introduction
The average annual global nitrogen fixation is of 175 million tonnes/year, in which the legume nitrogen fixation accounted for about 40 per cent. Rhizobium, gram negative rod shaped bacteria, which invade into the roots of legume, forming nodules and fixing the atmospheric nitrogen through nitrogenase enzyme is the basic phenomenon of the BNF of pulses. Subba Rao (1995) quated that, clover fixes about 130 kg of nitrogen per ha and cowpea ranges from 62-128 kg/ha. The nitrogen fixed by other legume crops is given in Table 1. (Nutman,1974). Keyser et al. (1992) reviewed the following characters of Rhizobium to be used as inoculant for pulses. 1. Ability to form nodules and fix nitrogen; 2. Ability to compete, 3. Ability to fix N at different environmental range; 4. Ability to grow in the artificial media; 5. Ability to persist in soil for long time; 6. Ability to migrate; 7. Ability to colonize in the soil; 8. Genetic stability; 9. Compatability and 10. Ability to colonize in rhizosphere soil.
Crop Response to Rhizobium
The range of experimentally determined values of N2 fixation by temprate and tropical legumes reflects the inherent capacities of legumes to accumulate and fix N (Peoples, et al., 1995). The All India Coordinated Pulses Improvement Project trials results clearly indicated that the inoculation of Rhizobium with basal P fertilizer application is enough to get maximum nodules/plant, nodule weight, plant biomass and grain yield of blackgram, greengram and redgram (Table 2-3). (AICPIP, 1997; 1998 & 1999). It is clearly revealed that application of Rhizobium as seed inoculant is the most essential component in the integrated nutrient management system in pulses. (AICPIP, 1999). The results also clearly showed that atleast 25 per cent of nitrogen could be complemented by Rhizobium if included as a component in the integrated nutrient management system.
1. Associate Professor, 2. Assistant Professor, Microbiology, NPRC, Vamban
Limitations of Rhizobium - Pulses symbiosis
There are so many biotic and abiotic factors influencing the rhizobial colonization in pulses. These factors play an important role in the pulses production by altering the efficiency of Rhizobium.
1. Pulses varieties
Selection of a pulse varieties for more nodulation and nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium is the basic step in the BNF of pulses. The pioneering work carried out by Lie and Mulocer (1971) and Philips et al (1971) reported that the phenotypic differences in nitrogen fixation are not fully due to plant genotypes or the Rhizobium genotypes but arise due to a lesser or greater extent from the collective action between specific individuals. Oblisamy et al. (1982) reported that the genotypes of blackgram and greengram varied with the response to Rhizobium inoculation (Table 4). Muthiah (1999) reviewed some practical methods to evolve the pulses for more Rhizobium response.
2. Soil abiotic factors
a. Soil pH
The soil pH plays are important role in the nodulation and nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium in pulses. At acid pH, the non availability of phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, molybdenum and boran, which are key elements for Rhizobial nodulation and nitrogen fixation lead to poor performance. Moreover the toxicity of aluminia and manganese to rhizobial cells also the reason for the poor growth (Bushby, 1982). The aluminium of 50μ M and 200μ M of manganese are the minimum concentrations in soil solution to effect the rhizobial cells (Keyser and Munn, 1979).
A trial conducted at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban at different pH soils, the Rhizobium CRU 7 performed better nodulation and biomass production in blackgram at 6.5-7 pH, whereas the low pH of 4.5-5.0, there is significant decline in the nodule / plant, nodule and biomass production.
As fig.2, the alkaline soils also tend to be high in sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, sodium sulphate which are found to be highly toxic to the Rhizobial cells (Wilson, 1931). The effect of pH on the survival of rhizobia in soil was studied by Swaminathan and Prasad (1982) (Table 5).
The neutral soils are with more availability of P, Ca, Mg, Fe, Mo, B etc. and with non toxic level of A1, Mn, NaCl leads to higher survival of Rhizobium in soil and better nodulation and nitrogen fixation in pulses (Prabakaran, 1999 and Hegde, 1999).
b. Organic matter
The organic matters act as a media to survive the Rhizobium in the soil when the host is not available. So, the organic matter of the soil leads a major role in the activity of Rhizobium (Gunasekaran, 1999). More over, when the organic matter content of soil declines the water holding capacity, becomes poor, nutrients status and soil hardening which lead to the poor survival of Rhizobium in the soil (Prabakaran, 1998). Bharwaj and Guar (1972) reported that humic and fulric acid fractions of soil appreciably improve the growth of Rhizobium meliloti. Prabakaran and Ravi (1996) reported that application of organic amendments such as sheep manure, biodigested slurry and farm yeard manure application significantly increased the Rhizobium efficiency by increasing the nodule number/plant, nodule weight and grain yield (Table 6).
c. Moisture and aeration
Optimum soil moisture and good aeration of soil are required for maximum nodulation. Both excess moisture and drought adversely affect the nodulation and symbiotic nitrogen fixation. Moisture content of 24% in alfisols and 45% in vertisols gave maximum nodulation in Chickpea (Hegde, 1999). Venkateswaralu (1997) reported that though the soil rhizobial population was low in the off season, but can return to normal population on the receipt of monsoon rains and soil rewetting. Balasundaram (1988) screened soybean Rhizobium tolerant to water stress.
3. Biotic factors
i. Antogonistic organisms
Jain and Rewari (1974) found that seed-borne bacteria and fungi are reported to be antogonistic to rhizobia. The bacterial genera, Bacillus, Alcaligenes, Erwinia, Aerobacter, Corynebacterium, Arthrobacter, Brevibacterium, Agrobacterium, Sarcina, Enterobacter and Micrococcus and the fungal genera, Alternaria, Aspergillus, Penicillium, Rhizopus, Acrothecium, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia, Curvularia, Pythium and Mucar were found to be autogonistic against rhizobia in soil (Subba rao, 1993).
ii. Rhizobiophages
The phases which infect and kill the rhizobia are called as rhizobiophages. They possess DNA. They infect both slow and fast growing rhizobia. The presense of higher phage population in the soil reduce the activity of rhizobia and ultimately the crop yield. The selection of rhizobial strains resistant to rhizobiophages with higher nitrogen fixation is advisable (Murugesan, 1999).
iii. Native Rhizobium
Brockwell et al. (1982) reported that naturally occurring rhizobia often exist in populations of between 1.0 x 104 and 1.0 x 107 cells per gram of soil. This is equavalent to 1.5 x 1013 rhizobia per ha of soil (10 cm). If the introduced rhizobia are about 10 x 1010 cells per ha, the inoculant: native rhizobia ratio is about 1:250. It seems, therefore, in soils where there are large number of naturally occurring rhizobia, will result in to poor response of inoculated Rhizobium. It clearly indicated that the best way to establish a new strain of rhizobia against a naturally occurring population is to apply a heavy rate of effective, persistent inoculum placed straightly close the point in the soil where the legume roots will accept infections.
As fig.2. explained, the biotic and abiotic factors of soil play a major role in the exploitation of Rhizobium for pulses production in sustainable agriculture.
Phosphobacteria – An Introduction
Phosphate solubilizing bacteria play a major role in the solubilization and uptake of native and applied soil phosphorus. Phosphorus, the key element is an essential plant nutrient required for early establishment and better plant growth. It accelerates tillering, flower initiation, good pod and seed setting. Most of the indian soils are deficient in available form of P and its requirement is met by the addition of phosphatic fertilizers but the use efficiency of applied phosphorus rarely exceeds 30 per cent due to its fixation as Fe and Al phosphates in acid soil and Ca and Mg phosphates in alkaline soils. In this context, phosphate solubilizing micro organisms plays an important role in the utilization of unavailable native phosphates as well as added phosphates.
The bacteria, Bacillus megatrium, B. polymyxa, Pseudomonas striata, Micrococcus, Streptomyces are the important phosphobacteria commonly present in the soil. The population of these bacteria is more in the rhizosphere compared to non rhizosphere.
Mechanism of phosphorus solubilization
The major microbiological means, by which insoluble phosphorus compounds mobilized, is by the production of organic acid which is accompanied by the acidification of medium. The acids are citric, furmanic, malic, lactic, 2 ketogluconic, gluconic, glyoxylic and x-ketobutyric acids (Illmer and Schinner, 1992). Apart from acid production, they produce phosphatase enzyme which cause the solubilization of P (Alghazali et al. 1986). Kapoor et al. (1989) reported that chelating compounds, mineral acids and siderophores also play the role of P solubilization (Fig.3).
Crop response of phosphobacteria
The experiments conducted on soybean (Natarajan and Gunasekaran, 1991), pea, french bean and ground nut (Natarajan and Subramanian, 1995) revealed the synergistic effect of phosphobacteria. The trials conducted at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban reported that the application of phosphorus as rock phosphate at basal along with phosphobacteria inoculation recorded significant yield increase in the blackgram and greengram (Table 7& 8).
Interaction of Rhizobium and Phosphobacteria
Nitrogen and phosphorus are the two major plant nutrients required for higher productivity and combined inoculation of nitrogen fixers and phosphate solubilizing micro organisms may benefit the plant better than individual inoculation. Natarajan and Gunasekaran (1991) reported the beneficial effect of combined inoculation of Rhizobium and phosphate solubilizing bacteria on soybean. Trials conducted at Coimbatore reported that combined inoculation of Rhizobium and phosphobacteria with 50 per cent of N and P fertilizer recorded the equal yield of 100% N and P alone (Santhana krishnan, 1990). The same results are obtained at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban when tried with blackgram var. Vamban 1 and in horsegram also (Prabakaran et al., 1999) (Table 9).
The above results clearly suggested that combined inoculation of Rhizobium and Phosphobacteria will help the macro symbiont – pulses to get maximum quantity of N and P nutrients so as to get higher yield (Fig.4).
Future thrust to improve the dual inoculation
Among the various sources of biological nitrogen fixation, symbiotic legume – rhizobia association contributes one of the major sources. To utilize the symbiotic nitrogen fixation effectively, there should be enough improved techniques available. The altering the environmental soil and biotic factors, the legume dual inoculation can be improved.
1. Macro and Micronutrients
The failure of pulses – biofertilizers may be sometimes due to non-availability of macro and micronutrients which are essential for the nodualtion and nitrogen fixation in pulses. Application of organic amendments such as farm yard manure, compost, press mud and coirpith application gives enough nutrients for the biofertilizers both Rhizobium and phosphobacteria to survive in the soil when host is not available. More over, the organic manure application lossen the soil for better movement of rhizobial cells in the root region. As Prabakaran (1998) reported application of organic manure is most essential to improve the nodulation and grain yield in pulses by Rhizobium in acid soils.
Similarly, foliar spray of phosphorus also recorded the higher nodulation and nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium in blackgram. The experiments conducted at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban revealed that both soil and foliar spray of phosphorus recorded the maximum nodulation and grain yield of blackgram.
Most of the times, the failure of Rhizobium in pulses is due to non availability of micro nutrients such as Mo, Co, B and Fe. The experiment conducted at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban confirmed that application of Mo, Co, B and Fe as foliar spray recorded maxim um nodulaion and grain yield in blackgram (Table 10).
The research on requirement of macro and micro nutrients to create better environment for the maximum utilization of biofertilizers (Rhizobium and Phosphobacteria) is essential.
2. Genetic Improvement
The following are the avenue for the improvement of Rhizobium to get maximum BNF in pulses.

• Improvement of sym gene – a plasmid / chromosomal gene which is involved in the symbiotic activities.
• Improvement of nod genes – nodulation factor
• Improvement of nif gene of Rhizobium – a plasmid gene which is responsible for nitrogen fixation in Rhizobium.
The Rhizobial strains could be improved by manipulating the genetic triat of the above genes. To achieve these important characters, the rhizobia could be manipulated genetically by in vitro recombination through conjugation, transformation, transduction and mutations (Sundaram, 1999).
Apart from nodulation and nitrogen fixation improvement, the following characters of Rhizobium are to be manipulated so as to get maximum efficiency.
• Acid tolerant strains
• Salt & water resistant strains
• Herbicide resistant mutants
• Temperature tolerant strains
• Phage resistant strains
• High competitive strains to native rhizobia
3. Antogonistic bacteria and Azospirillum
The use of antogonistic bacteria, which is compatable to the Rhizobium and antogonistic to other soil pathogens could be another method to improve the nodulation and nitrogen fixation. The antogonistic bacteria - AB 3 was developed by Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore tested at AICPIP Centres. The results clearly proved that the Coinoculation of Rhizobium and antogonistic bacteria proved to be the best for enhancing the rhizobial nodulation and nitrogen fixation (Table 11).
The exploitation of such bacteria and Azospirillum, which can improve the root growth for better nodulation and production of growth promoting substances is the next step in the improvement of pulses – Rhizobium symbiosis.
4. Improvement of legume host
It is now well known that number of host factors influence the nodulation as well as symbiotic nitrogen fixation directly or indirectly. The flavonoids produced by the legume trigger the induction of bacterial nodulation genes which is essential for the expression of plant genes for nodule morphogenesis. The genetic improvement of legume host is essential for production of flavonoids and nodulins is the future need to improve the nodulation and nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium.
5. Inoculants for Dryland pulses
Nearly 90 per cent of pulses in India is cultivated under rainfed situation on marginal lands. Abiotic stresses significantly affect the BNF and P solubilization. Optimum environment for better biological nitrogen fixation and P solubilization are well known. But simple and practical agronomic techniques which can be adopted by small farmers are to be developed to overcome the soil stress in the field.
Table 1. Average nitrogen fixed by legumes
Sl.No.
Legumes
N fixed (kg/ha)
1.
Pigeonpea
41-90
2.
Soybean
17-124
3.
Cowpea
73-240
4.
Grams
31-121
5.
Groundnut
33-111
6.
Chickpea
41-270
7.
Cluster bean
37-196
8.
Peas
46
9.
Fenu greek
44
10.
Lentil
41-90
11.
Stylo
30-190
12.
Leucerne
164
13.
Clover
23-260
(Nutman, 1974)
Table 2. Average nodulation by Rhizobium at different pulses
Treatments
Nodule No./ plant
1997
1998
1999
Average
Per cent increase over fertilizer conrol
I.
Redgram
i. Control
2.2
2.1
2.0
2.1
ii. Rhizobium
5.9
5.7
6.7
6.1
15.15
iii. 20 kg N/ha
3.4
3.4
3.2
3.3
II.
Blackgram
i. Control
10.00
10.11
10.07
10.06
ii. Rhizobium
18.41
16.47
16.21
16.38
17.00
iii. 20 kg N/kg
13.71
15.17
13.13
14.00
III.
Greengram
i. Control
12.17
10.31
10.41
11.96
ii. Rhizobium
17.47
15.22
15.42
16.04
19.79
iii. 20 kg N/kg
13.17
14.14
12.27
13.39
(Source: Annual Reports of AICPIP)
Table 3. Grain yield increase by Rhizobium strains in pulses
Treatments
Grain yield (kg/ha)
1997
1998
1999
Average
Per cent increase over fertilizer conrol
I.
Redgram
i. Control
271
231
255
252
ii. Rhizobium
315
314
309
312
18.6
iii. 20 kg N/ha
374
256
255
263
II.
Blackgram
i. Control
327
371
301
333
ii. Rhizobium
525
619
507
550
34.80
iii. 20 kg N/kg
397
433
394
408
III.
Greengram
i. Control
354
339
341
345
ii. Rhizobium
556
528
525
536
41.79
iii. 20 kg N/kg
370
388
376
378
(Source: Annual Reports of AICPIP)
Table 4. Genotype variation in blackgram on rhizobial inoculation
Germplasms
Nodule No. / plant
Inoculated
Uninoculated
H 21
117
147
P 133
73
118
H.21.40/22
43
148
VZM 189
117
46
CO 2
52
72
H.21.40/28
152
158
P 58
122
104
H.21-50-4
40
206
NO 55
137
202
PLS 364
87
223
T 9
71
114
H.21
191
91
M 3
204
174
Musiri
117
127
H21-40/30
166
149
Pusal
181
131
(Oblisami, et al., 1982)
Table 5. Survival of Rhizobium at various soil pH
pH
Population ( X 106 /g)
20th day
40th day
80th day
100th day
Mean
7
24.0
19.0
14.0
10.0
15.3
8
20.0
29.0
18.0
12.0
20.1
9
23.0
34.0
33.0
13.0
28.4
10
23.0
30.0
17.5 8.0 18.5 Table 6. Influence of organic amendments on nodulation and grain yield of blackgram Treatments Nodule No./plant Grain yield (kg/ha) %Increase over control Control 4.0 835 - Rhizobium 25.0 995 22.6 Biodigested slurry 17.0 970 16.1 BDS + Rhizobium 22.0 1060 26.9 Sheep manure 15.0 965 15.2 SM + Rhizobium 22.0 1015 21.6 FYM 1.0 940 12.5 FYM + Rhizobium 23.0 1005 20.1 (Prabakaran & Ravi, 1998) Table 7. Influence of Rhizobium and phosphobacteria with fertilizer N and P on nodulation in blackgram (Vamban 1) No. of noduels / plant Nodule dry weight (mg/plant) Treatments Rabi 1998 Kharif 1999 Rabi 1998 Kharif 1999 T1 – Uninoculated control 3.80 3.67 16.13 16.33 T2 – Rhizobium 8.20 8.27 16.67 16.67 T3 – Phosphobacteria 5.53 5.20 16.67 17.00 T4 – Rhizobium + Phosphobacteria 12.27 11.87 24.00 24.67 T5 – 50% N + 50% P + R 15.20 15.00 27.63 31.67 T6 – 50% N + 50% P + PB 12.07 11.17 27.67 27.00 T7 – 50% N + 50% P + R + PB 30.33 31.00 65.67 64.67 T8 – 50% N + 50% P 16.47 16.33 25.33 32.33 T9 – 100% N + 100% P 17.17 15.87 40.00 33.67 SEd 1.24 1.40 1.90 2.04 CD 2.62 2.97 4.04 4.33 R – Rhizobium, PB – Phosphobacteria (NPRC, Vamban) Table 8. Influence of Rhizobium and phosphobacteria with fertilizer N and P on grain yield of blackgram (Vamban 1) Rabi 1998 Kharif 1999 Treatments Grain yield (kg/ha) Per cent increase over control Grain yield (kg/ha) Per cent increase over control T1 – Uninoculated control 353 - 293 - T2 – Rhizobium 415 17.56 334 13.08 T3 – Phosphobacteria 373 5.67 304 2.80 T4 – Rhizobium + Phosphobacteria 441 24.93 370 25.23 T5 – 50% N + 50% P + R 525 48.73 430 45.33 T6 – 50% N + 50% P + PB 531 50.42 428 44.86 T7 – 50% N + 50% P + R + PB 580 64.30 596 101.40 T8 – 50% N + 50% P 512 45.04 427 44.39 T9 – 100% N + 100% P 561 58.92 567 91.59 SEd 9.30 20.45 CD 19.73 43.35 R – Rhizobium, PB – Phosphobacteria (NPRC, Vamban) Table 9. Effect of dual inoculation of Rhizobium and phosphobacteria different P levels on growth, nodulation and grain yield in CO 1 horsegram Treatments Plant biomass Nodules (No./pl.) Nodule biomass Grain yield Per cent increase (g/pl.) (mg/pl) (kg/ha) over control T1 – Uninoculated control 2.01 4.0 13 550 - T2 – Rhizobium (R) 3.06 19.6 69 690 25.4 T3 – Phosphobacteria (PB) 2.78 14.0 47 630 14.5 T4 – R + PB 3.14 21.6 77 715 30.0 T5 – SP (40 kg P2O5 /ha) 2.76 19.0 64 665 20.9 T6 – SSP + R 3.11 23.0 83 705 28.3 T7 – SSP + PB 3.01 21.0 73 690 25.4 T8 – SSP + R + PB 3.26 25.6 89 735 33.6 T9 – ½ SSP (20kg P2O5/ha) 2.29 15.0 49 620 12.7 T10 – ½ SSP + R 2.66 20.6 79 675 22.7 T11 – ½ SSP + R + PB 2.79 22.6 84 700 27.3 SEd 0.93 2.89 3.07 5.61 CD (0.05) 1.94 6.03 6.4
11.7
(Prabakaran, et al., 1999)
Table 10. Influence of micronutrients spray on plant growth, nodulation and grain yield of Vamban 1 blackgram Nodules per plant Nodule weight (mg/pl) Grain yield (kg/ha) Sl. No Treatments Kharif '98 Kharif '99 Kharif '98 Kharif '99 Kharif '98 Kharif '99 1. Mo 15.00 14.00 33.67 32.33 384 361 2. B 14.33 13.67 31.67 31.33 360 397 3. Co 15.33 14.67 30.33 31.67 374 358 4. Fe 16.00 14.00 27.00 32.67 358 385 5. Mo + B 17.00 17.33 32.00 35.33 427 434 6. Mo + Co 17.67 16.67 37.33 36.00 453 458 7. Mo + Fe 17.00 17.67 27.33 33.67 485 460 8. B + Co 17.67 16.00 28.00 36.33 425 450 9. B + Fe 17.33 17.17 30.33 35.00 425 434 10. Co + Fe 17.00 17.67 32.00 34.67 434 466 11. Mo + B + Co 17.33 17.67 45.67 44.67 437 581 12. Mo + B + Fe 17.00 16.33 46.00 45.00 435 540 13. Mo + Co + Fe 18.33 16.67 43.67 43.17 449 531 14. B + Co + Fe 19.33 18.33 40.33 48.33 445 578 15. Mo + B + Co + Fe 23.34 24.60 56.47 57.33 555 590 16. Rhizobium alone 13.34 12.67 26.87 24.00 355 333 17. Uninoculated control 12.67 11.17 21.47 22.17 341 312 SEd: 0.74 0.98 0.65 1.43 14.10 14.07 CD: 1.51 1.99 1.32 3.54 28.76 28.71 Table 11. Synergistic effect of dual inoculation of Rhizobium and antogonistic bacteria on the grain yield of greengram (CO 5) Grain yield (kg/ha) Treatments 1996 1997 1998 Uninoculated control 653 628 646 Rhizobium (R) 829 800 760 Azospirillum (Az) 732 700 703 Antogonistic bacteria (AB) 755 720 715 Rhizobium + Azospirillum 778 845 781 R + AB 842 888 815 A + AB 737 745 728 R+AZ+AB 787 900 840 (Source: AICPIP report) 6. Thrust on Extension activities Besides above research and technological thrusts, equal thrust is needed on developmental, extension and policy making level also. Quality control of biofertilizer is also an serious issue which is to be worked out at national level. Conclusion This millenium is bound to depend on the sustainable and environmentally safe agriculture. The cost of chemical fertilizers, dwindling fossil fuels, environmental pollutions, awareness of quality foods, awareness of organic farming produces and sustainability in agriculture are some of the reasons for the dependency of fiofertilizers. So, creating suitable environment, genetic improvement and newer agronomic techniques for the Rhizobium and phosphobacteria will have greater oportunity to get the maximum pulses production. Reference Alghazali, R., S.H. Mustafa and K. Mohammad. 1986. Some observations on P solubilization by aerobic microorganisms isolated from sediments of Alkhar river. J. Bio. Sci. Res., 47: 157-172. All India Co-ordinated Pulses Improvement Project, 1997. Annual Reports of Pigeonpea and MULLAaRP. All India Co-ordinated Pulses Improvement Project, 1998. Annual Reports of Pigeonpea and MULLaRP. All India Co-ordinated Pulses Improvement Project, 1999. Annual Reports of Pigeonpea and MULLaRP. Balasundaram, V.R. 1988. Performance of Rhizobium japanicum strains tolerant to high temperature and low moisture. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 58: 776-778. Baradwaj, K.K.R. and A.C.Gaur. 1971. Zentral Bakteriol. Hygine, 126: 649- 99. Bushby, H.V.A. 1982. Ecology In: Nitrogen fixation vol. II. Rhizobium (ed.) W.J.Brohghton, Oxford Publ., US. p.35-75. Gunasekaran, S. 1999. Importance of Rhizobium in legume production. In: Symbiotic nitrogen fixing Microorganisms, Dept. of Microbiol, Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ., Coimbatore, India, p.1. Hegde, S.V. 1999. Ecology of legume Rhizobium symbiosis in: Recent Advances in Microbial Inoculants, Dept. of Agrl. Microbiology, Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ., Coimbatore, p.21. Illmer, P. and F. Schinner. 1992. Solubilization of inorganic phosphates by micro organisms isolated from forestry soils. Soil Biol. Biochem., 24: 389-395. Jain, M.K. and Rewari, R.B. 1974. Isolation of seed borne microflora from leguminous crops and their antogonistic effect on Rhizobium. Curr. Sci., 43: 157. Kapoor, K.K., M.M. Mishra and K.Kukreja. 1989. Phosphate solubilization by soil Micro organisms. Ind. J. Microbiol., 129: 119-127. Keyser, H.H. and D.N. Munns. 1979. Soil Sci. Soc. AM. J., 43: 519-523. Keyser, H.H., P.Somasekaran and B.B.Bohool. 1992. Rhizobial ecology and Technology. In: Soil Microbial Ecology: Application in Agricultural and Environmental Management (ed.) W.B. Meeting and J.M.Dekkar, New yark. pp.205-226. Lie, T.A. and E.G. Mulder. 1971. Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Natural and Agricultural habitat. Plant Soil (Special volume): 590. Murugesan, R. 1999. Rhizobiophages and their influence in nodulation process. In: Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixing Microorganisms, Dept. of Agric. Microbiol., Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ., Coimbatore, India, p.24-26. Muthaiah, A.R. 1999. Enhancing the crop legume nitrogen fixation through selection and breeding. In: Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixing Microorganisms, Dept. of Agricultural Microbiology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, p.54. Natarajan, N. and S.Gunasekaran. 1991. Coinoculants for soybean. Abst. XXXI. Annual Conf. AMI., TNAU, Coimbatore. p.127. Oblisamy, G., K.Balaraman and T.Natarajan. 1982. Nodulation pattern in certain germplasm of blackgram and greengram. In: Aspects of Biological Nitrogen Fixation, Univ. Agric. Sci., Banglore, India. p.15. Peoples, M.B., J.K. Ladha and D.F. heraidge. 1995. Enhancing legume nitrogen fixation through plant and soil management. Plant Soil., 174. Phillips, D.A., J.G. Torrey and R.H. Burries. 1971. Extending symbiotic nitrogen fixation to increase the mans' food supply, Science, 174; 169-171. Prabakaran, 1999. Rhizobial inoculants for problem soil. In: Reason Advances in Microbial inoculant. Dept. of Agrl. Microbiol., Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ. Coimbatore, India, p.18. Prabakaran, J. 1998. Effect of pressmud and sheepmanure on the growth and yield of redgram in alfisols. Madras Agric. J., 85: 303-304. Prabakaran, J. and K.B.Ravi. 1996. Response of soybean to Rhizobium and organic amendments in acid soil. Madras Agric. J., 83: 132-133. Prabakaran, J., D. Balachandar and P.Nagarajan. 1999. Influence of dual inocualtion of Rhizobium and Phosphobacteria at different levels of P in horsegram. Legume Res., 22: 183. Subba rao, N.S. 1993. Rhizobium and legume root nodulation. In: Biological Nitrogen Fixation (eds.) N.S. Subba rao, et al., Indian Council of Agric. Res., New Delhi. p3-40. Subba rao, N.S. 1995. Biofertilizers in Agriculture and forestry, Oxford & IBH, Publications, Bombay, p.240. Sundaram, S.P. 1999. Genetic upgradation of cowpea rhizobia. In: Symbiotic nitrogen fixing Micro organisms, Dept. of Agric. Microbiology, Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ., Coimbatore, India, p.21. Swaminathan, R. and N.N. Prasad. 1982. Effect of pH moisture and temperature on the survival of Rhizobium in sterile soil. In: Aspects of Biological Nitrogen Fixation, Univ. Agric. Sci., Banglore, India, p.53. Venkateswaralu, B. 1997. Water stress and biological nitrogen fixation in legumes. Ind. J. Dryland Agric. Res. Dev., 12: 51-53. Wilson, J. 1931. Aus. J. Agric. Res., 21: 571-82. Fig.3. Mechanism of P solubilization by phosphobacteria Phytins Phospholipids Nucleic acid Inorganic Acid soil Fe Phosphates Al Alkali soil Ca Phosphates Mg
Organic acids Phosphobacte Rock phosphate Soluble Phosphate (H2PO4-) Plants Fig.4. Mechanism of dual inoculation of Rhizobium and Phosphobacteria for pulses Rhizobium Phosphobacteria P Root exudates (Carboh
ydrates) P N Carbohydrate Pulses Fig.2. Biotic and abiotic factors influencing the Rhizobium in soil SOIL Weedicides & Inorganic fertilizers Antogonistic Organisums Rhizobiophages Native Rhizobia Soil pH Organic matter Macro & Micro nutrients Pests Moisture Temperature Fig.1. Influence of soil pH on the Rhizobium nodulation pH 14 • Non availability of P,K,Mg, Ca, Mo & B • Toxicity of Al & Mn Good survival of Rhizobium in soil Availability of all the essential nutrients at optimum level Poor survival of Rhizobium in soil • Non availability of water Non availability of Fe • Toxicity of NaCl & NasSO4 •
Poor survival of Rhizobium in soil Poor nodulation & Nitrogen Good nodulation & Nitrogen Poor nodulation & Nitrogen pH 1 pH 4 pH 6 pH 7 pH 8 pH 10 TAGGING GENE(S) FOR MUNGBEAN YELLOW MOSAIC RESISTANCE IN MUNGBEAN - A COLLABORATIVE APPROACH WITH AVRDC Dr.A.Manickam* Mungbean / green gram (Vigna radiata L.Wilczek) is an important food grain legume in south and southeast Asia. It ranks fifth among over ten different food legumes in India. The grains are consumed in different forms- cooked with vegetables and curry (sambar), boiled, deep-fried (vadai), roasted and/or sprouted. It contains 22% - 28% total protein, mostly water-soluble and easily digestible. The powder is used as an ingredient in some cosmetics as well as infant bathing powder. The global annual production of mungbean is estimated at 2.9 x 106 tons from 5.7 x 106 ha with an average yield of 0.5 t / ha. India accounts for about 60% of the world's mungbean area; she harvests 47% of the world production (Jickoo and Satyanarayana, 1998). China leads in the yield level with an average of 1.1 t / ha. India is the largest grower in terms of area but, alas, harvests only 0.4 t/ha. There is, therefore, greater scope for increasing the mungbean productivity in the country. Among various states in our country, Tamil Nadu ranks 8th in mungbean production with a harvest of 63,200 tonnes which is 4.6% of the national production level during 1995-96. Although, the mungbean production has improved in the past two decades, it is not yet substantial when compared with many other grain legumes despite the best efforts of mungbean breeders. There are many factors responsible for low mungbean yield. These range from plant type (due to low inherent capacity) to biotic and abiotic stresses, neglected cultivation, low input and so on. Post-harvest storage problem of the grains, competition with other food grain legumes, consumer preference and marketprice of the produce also indirectly influence the mungbean production. * Professor & Head, Dept.of Biotechnology, TNAU, Coimbatore - 641 003 Crop improvement by plant breeding has been the main focus all the time. Systematic efforts to improve the mungbean plant by breeding have been continuously made by the Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center and National Agricultural Research Systems either independently or collaboratively as well as through 'shuttle breeding' between these institutions (AVRDC 1998a). The mungbean varieties with specific improved traits released around the world have been compiled (Shanmughasundaram, 1984 and 1998). The major abiotic stresses in mungbean production include drought/water stress, salinity etc. while major biological stresses include susceptibility to various fungal, bacterial and viral pathogens and insect pests. Diseases are the major constraints to yield in most of the mungbean growing countries. Among them, mungbean yellow mosaic, powdery mildew and Cercospora leaf spot continue as major diseases on mungbean plant especially in Asian countries. The devasting disease among these three varies from country to country, season to season and region to region within the country. The mungbean yellow mosaic virus (MYMV) is the serious and most devastating biotic stress in Indian subcontinent and perhaps co-evolved with the mungbean. It was first reported by Nariani (1960). The disease is widely prevalent in all countries of south Asia. The disease occurs at any season especially during summer. It is caused by MYMV transmitted by whitefly (Bemicia tabaci). Depending upon the stage of infection of the plant, the yield loss could be up to 85% (AVRDC, 1998). Breeding efforts continue to evolve new varieties with resistance to the vector, resistance to the virus as well as to increase the yield potential. Although many new genotypes have been developed with tolerance/resistance to MYMV (Green et al., 1998, Singh et al., 1997), they are either unstable or resistance breaks down at different locations / seasons. Therefore, there is a need to develop genotypes that carry durable resistance to MYMV, if yield level is to be raised in the subcontinent. Attempts to develop resistant lines have also been made through inter/intraspecific hybridization and mutation by deriving resistance from 3 species of Vigna: radiata, mungo and umbellate (Tickoo and Satyanarayana, 1998). Although many of phenotype characters are known genetically, the molecular aspects governing MYMV resistance in the host plant is not yet understood. Such a knowledge would help develop biotechnology tools for improving mungbean with MYMV resistance. Mungbean is a mandatory crop in Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre's (AVRDC) research activity. AVRDC, Taiwan has evolved many varieties with improved plant traits including higher yield potential as well as for certain disease and insect resistance. Initiatives were made by AVRDC to breed MYMV resistant mungbean lines through 'shuttle breeding' with Pakistan and found an improved elite variety (NM 92) with MYMV resistance. However, the performance of these varieties especially with respect to longer disease endurance has been a point of focus. Recently, AVRDC embarked with molecular research initiatives to understand the MYMV resistance mechanism as well as to develop plants through biotechnological means. In this context, a collaborative molecular research was established between TNAU and AVRDC. The results generated during a short term training period of the author is as follows: • Three oligonucleotide primers based on the conserved P-loop and nucleotide-binding site of plant disease resistance (R) gene products were designed and used • Forty mungbean DNA were examined for the presence of R-gene related sequences by PCR • Amplification of Taq DNA polymerase using primer set III resulted in 5-7 products; the product at 500 bp size was the most abundant. In most of VC lines, a strong band of 1100 bp was observed. The product pattern slightly differed between VC and south Asian mungbean genotypes • Primer set II amplified 7-9 products (size 200 - 1000 bp) with similar band pattern in agarose gels • Primer set I generated 4-6 products almost similar in electrophoresis pattern between mungbean genotypes; amplification of MYMV immune ricebean DNA showed an additional band of 1.3 kb size • The PCR products of NM 92 amplified using primer set III by Taq DNA polymerase were cloned in pGEM-T Easy vector. Four groups of clones based on the insert size were isolated and sequenced. The inserts of 500 bp size showed homology to short regions of conserved sequences of NBS in soybean and potato • Many of these clones were identified homologous to N (tobacco), RPS2 (Arabidopsis), RLG (soybean) and Osr (rice) R genes • Altogether, 16 clones of different candidate R-gene sequences of mungbean have been isolated. These clones were used on suitable near-isogenic lines as molecular probes, to identify the diseases to which they confer resistance • Preliminary RFLP experiments using some of these candidate R gene sequences (1.3.12 and 1.3.14) as probes revealed variant bands between mungbean such as MYMV-susceptible Pusa Baisakhi and V. sublobata TC 1966 • Dra I and clone 1.3.12 combination detected a polymorphic band between MYMV resistant and susceptible F7 lines of NM92 x TC 1966 cross. Similarly, these sequences can be used as probes to study fungal and bacterial diseases of mungbean. Biotechnology can be applied to develop MYMV resistant mungbean from three different approaches: 1. Manipulating viral genome including antisense RNA technology to contain virus multiplication in the host plant 2. Identifying host plant genes responsible for whitefly resistance either from mungbean or from any other (whitefly-host) plants and then utilizing such genes in mungbean improvement 3 (a) Developing molecular markers to identify MYMV resistance and deploying them for marker aided selection in breeding program and (b) Cloning of host plant MYMV resistant gene from any Vigna Sp. and then introducing it into mungbean We need substantial research money to intensify our efforts towards addressing MYMV resistance through biotechnology We have already submitted research plan proposals to the McKnight Foundation, USA and Competitive Grant Project under ICAR. The following experimental activites have already been initiated: - phenotyping of promising lines at different locations for MYMV resistance - collecting seed materials from other Institutes for study - Biochemical and molecular laboratory experiments and - developing mapping population. It is hoped that these initiatives will bring a greater understanding of MYMV problem and help increase mungbean productivity. References AVRDC : 1994. Annotated bibliography of mungbean yellow mosaic virus. AVRDC Library Bibliography Series 6, Tropical Vegetable Information Service. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Publication no.94-418, 920. AVRDC : 1998. Diseases and insect pests of mungbean and blackgram : a bibliography. Shanhua, Tainan : Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, 1998. VI, 254p. AVRDC : 1998a. International Consultation Workshop on Mungbean : Proc. Of the mungbean workshop, 7-11 Sep. 1997, New Delhi, India. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan. 198p. Green SK Kim DH Chiang BT Maxwell D 1998. Mungbean yellow mosaic virus in the AVRDC mungbean improvement program. In : International Consultation Workshop on Mungbean : Proc. of the mungbean workshop, 7-11 Sep. 1997, New Delhi, India. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan. 198p. Nariani TK 1960. Yellow mosaic of mung (Phaseolus aureus L.). Indian Phytopathol. 13, 24-29. Shanmughasundaram S. 1984. A catalog of mungbean cultivars released around the world AVRDC, Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan. 20p. Shanmughasundaram S. 1998. Summary of improved mungbean varieties released in the region. In : AVRDC, 1998. International consultation workshop on mungbean; Proc. of the mungbean workshop, 7-II Sep. 1997, New Delhi, India. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan. 198p. Singh, G., Brar, J.S., Sharma, Y.R., Kaur, L. 1997. Enhancement of mungbean yellow mosaic resistance through inter / intraspecific hybridization and mutations. In : International consultation workshop on mungbean. Proc. of the mungbean workshop, 7-11 Sep. 1997. New Delhi, India. AVRDC, Shanhua, Taiwan, 198p. Tickoo, J.L. and Satyanarayana, A. 1998. International Consultation Workshop on Mungbean : Proc. of the mungbean workshop, 7-11 Sep. 1997, New Delhi, India. Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center, Shanhua, Tainan, Taiwan. 198p. ROLE OF PULSES IN HUMAN DIETS Dr.A.Susheela Thirumaran1 and S.Kanchana2 Pulses occupy a prominent place in our diets and the Indian agricultural economy, since they are major protein sources for the people. In India pulses are recognised as one of the most important sources of edible vegetable proteins, which are taken in the form of dhal. Legumes provide the protein supplement to the diet which primarily consists of carbohydrates. The complementary nutritive value of cereals and pulses suggests that the most practical means of eradicating the wide spread protein calorie malnutrition in several areas of the world, is to increase the supply of cereal pulse mixtures for human diets. Legumes are important sources of proteins, carbohydrates including fibre, certain minerals (Calcium, Magnesium, Zinc, Iron, Potassium and Phosphorous) and ‘B’ complex vitamins. Legumes are consumed by human in many forms. The nutrient bio availability from legumes depend on the nutrient content and factors such as post harvest handling, processing methods and conditions. In developing countries, legumes are the most important high protein foods and play the role, which is played in rich countries by meat and other animal products. Though the share of calories from the pulses only 67 per cent a very substantial portion of protein is obtained from the pulses. Functional properties For processing of pulses into value added products the various functional properties of the pulses known like water absorption, emulsion capacity and nitrogen solubility index should be known. 1. Dean, 2. Assistant Professor, Home Science College and Research Institute, Madurai. Table 1. Chemical composition of pulses Sl.No Name of the foodstuff Moisture Protein (Nx6.25) g. Fat g. Minerals g. Fibre g. Carbo hydrates g. Energy Kcal. Calcium mg. Phosphorus mg. Iron mg. 28 BENGAL GRAM, Whole 9.8 17.1 5.3 3.0 3.9 60.9 360 202 312 4.6 29 BENGAL GRAM,dhal 9.9 20.8 5.6 2.7 1.2 59.8 372 56 331 5.1 30 BENGAL GRAM. Roasted 10.7 22.5 5.2 2.5 1.0 58.1 369 58 340 9.5 31 BLACK GRAM, dhal 10.9 24.0 1.4 3.2 0.9 59.6 347 154 385 3.8 32 COW PEA 13.4 24.1 1.0 3.2 3.8 54.5 323 77 414 8.6 33 FIELD BEAN, dry 9.6 24.9 0.8 3.2 1.4 60.1 347 60 433 2.7 34 GREEN GRAM, whole 10.4 24.0 1.3 3.5 4.1 56.7 337 124 326 4.4 35 GREEN GRAM, dhal 10.1 24.5 1.2 3.5 0.8 59.9 348 75 405 3.9 36 HORSE GRAM,whole 11.8 22.0 0.5 3.2 5.3 57.2 321 287 311 6.77 37 KHESARI , dhal 10.0 28.2 0.6 2.3 2.3 56.6 345 90 317 6.3 38 LENTIL 12.4 25.1 0.7 2.1 0.7 59.0 343 69 293 7.58 39 MOTH BEANS 10.8 23.6 1.1 3.5 4.5 56.5 330 202 230 9.5 40 PEAS green 72.9 7.2 0.1 0.8 4.0 15.9 93 20 139 1.5 41 PEAS dry 16.0 19.7 1.1 2.2 4.5 56.5 315 75 298 7.05 42 PEAS roasted 10.1 22.9 1.4 2.4 4.4 58.8 340 81 345 6.4 43 RAJMAH 12.0 22.9 1.3 3.2 (4.8) 60.6 346 260 410 5.1 44 REDGRAM,dhal 13.4 22.3 1.7 3.5 1.5 57.6 335 73 3.4 2.7 45 REDGRAM (tender) 65.1 23.8 1.0 1.0 6.2 16.9 116 57 164 1.1 46 SOYABEAN 8.1 43.2 19.5 4.6 3.7 20.9 432 240 690 10.4 Table 2. Essential amino acids for pulses and legumes Name of the Foodstuff Approxi mate total N g/100 gms. Argi nine Histi dine Lysine Tryp tophan Phyny lalanine Tyrosine Methi onine Cystine Thre onine Leucine Lsole ucine valine mg. per gm N BENGAL gram (whole) 2.74 570 160 440 050 360 180 080 080 220 580 320 310 BLACK GRAM dhal 3.84 520 170 400 070 310 140 090 080 220 500 340 310 COWPEA 3.86 420 200 430 070 320 230 090 080 230 480 270 310 FIELD BEAN 3.98 530 180 500 030 330 -- 040 080 250 550 360 310 GREEN GRAMwhole 3.84 500 170 460 060 350 100 080 060 200 510 350 320 HORSE GRAM 3.52 530 190 520 070 380 -- 070 130 230 540 370 390 KHESARI dhal 4.51 490 160 470 050 260 -- 030 070 140 410 410 250 LENTIL 4.02 540 160 440 060 270 200 050 070 220 470 270 310 MOTH BEANS 3.78 -- 210 340 040 280 -- 060 030 -- 420 310 200 PEAS 1.15 570 130 400 060 250 220 060 080 240 380 290 290 PEAS (dry) 3.15 570 130 440 060 280 170 050 070 240 430 280` 300 RAJMAH 3.66 370 180 460 060 340 100 060 040 270 470 300 330 REDGRAM dhal 3.57 360 250 480 040 460 130 060 060 200 450 250 260 SOYA BEAN 6.91 450 150 400 080 300 210 080 100 240 480 320 320 Digestibility by Proteolytic Enzymes The proteolytic enzymes both pepsin and pancreatin have a lower digestibility value than by casein. Mixing properties Replacing 5% or 10% of the wheat flour with mungbean flour improve the mixing properties of the dough and produce good acceptable bread. Water absorption, oil absorption, emulsion capacity and nitrogen solubility index (NSI) are the indices to determine quality of the pulse flour. Flatulence Factor The ability of legume seeds to stimulate gas been recognized for many years and is one of the main reasons why people limit their consumption of legumes. A number of huma and animal investigations have demonstrated that the oligosaccharides, raffinoses and stachyoses are the principal causes of flatulence. Germination Effect on Nutritional Quality Legumes have to be cooked for a prolonged period of time to make them digestible and palatable. Due to the interlay of enzymes, germination, however, increases the digestibility, shortens the time needed for cooking and enhances the nutritive value of the legumes as revealed by several studies conducted earlier. Chandrasekhar and Chitra (1978) reviewuated the protein quality of mungbean (raw and sprouted forms) supplemented with skim milk at 5% level and sulphur-containing amino acids, methionine and cystine on albino rats. The results revealed that the diet with sprouted mungbean and skim milk + 0.5% methionine was the best. Jaya and Venkataraman (1980) reported that germination up to 48h improved the carbohydrate digestibility while the 96h germination had no effect. Digestibility was better when the legumes were treated with α-amylase than when they were treated with α-amylase. When starches isolated from chickpea were treated with α-amylase, the relative proportion of crude products was altered as a result of germination, whereas, in the case of mungbean the relative proportion of end products was not altered. Germination can be considered as process for improving the digestibility of mungbean. Giri et al. (1981) studied the effect of germination of mungbean, among others, which indicated that ash content decreases during germination and mineral content (total iron and calcium) remains constant. Calcium decreased and the available iron and protein content increased with progressive germination stages. The increase in the available iron may be due to the release of protein-bound iron. The pectin content increases in mungbean and the phytin content decreases. Chavan et al. (1983) reported that soaking legume seeds such as mungbean and black gram in a solution for 12h at 250Cimproved the water uptake of the resultant dhal during cooking and decreased cooking time by 50% to 75%. However, soaking dry dhal in water for 1h prior to cooking was essential. Thirumaran and Devadas (1994) formulated weaning food mixes using malted ragi (finger millet) Elusine coracan, thenai (foxtail millet) Setaria italica the staple food of the population in developing countries and grain amaranthus- Amaranthus hypochondriacus-the under utilized high protein pseudo-cereal as a base. The processed weaning food mixes were studied for acceptability, nutritive value, packaging and shelf life. The Protein Efficiency Ratio (PER), True Digestibility (TD), Biological Value (BV) and Net Protein Utilization (NPU) of the mixes were also studied. Acceptability Among the six combinations tried the malted grain amaranthus + roasted Bengal gram had significantly higher values acceptability than all the others and was on par with ragi + roasted Bengal gram flour. Nutritive Value The energy value of the weaning food mixes ranged from 371 to 395 kilocalories per cent, protein 13.38 a per cent, calcium 120 to 760 mg/g, iron 136 to 503, copper 10 to 20, zinc 19 to 44 and manganese 14 to 63 in g/g. Shelf life There was an increase in moisture level of the weaning food mixes in HDPE packing after a period of 60 days without the development of free fatty acids and microbial load. Biological assay Compared to the PER of the diets formulated with roasted Bengal gram significant difference between ragi and thenai (0.05 per cent level) was found, the ragi being highest. There was no significant difference between the diets with green gram. The nitrogen balance studies were conducted with ragi and grain amaranthus base with roasted Bengal gram which had high PER, and compared with casein diet. The TD of the foods had significant differences, the highest for casein, followed by malted grain amaranthus and ragi base respectively. The difference in BV of malted grain amaranyhus base diet and casein diet were significantly different from malted ragi base diet. The NPU of the casein diet and malted grain amaranthus base were on par and significantly higher than that of malted ragi based diet. It is clear from the above studies that germination is a simple method of food processing which results in increased nutritive value. It decreases the phytin phosphorous level and increases the availability of iron and calcium. An increases in the pectin level in mungbean may increase the cooking time. Nutritional Quality Reeta-Goel and Verma (1980) conducted a study with mungbean, black gram and lentil (Lens culinaris). In all three of these pulses, bacteria fermentation increased the total sugar content. Easwaran et al. (1972) reported the protein quality for two selected vegetable protein mixtures based on maize, chickpea, mungbean and groundnut, through growth and the protein efficiency ration (PER), hepatic nitrogen and nitrogen balance using albino rats. It was found that the protein quality of vegetable protein mixture based on maize, chickpea and groundnut was comparable to that of skim milk, while the maize, mungbean and groundnut mixture was nearly as efficient as the other two. Chandrasekar et al. (1981) used chickpea, mungbean and horse gram (Kerstingiella uniflora (Lam.)Lackey) in three forms: raw ground form; roasted at 100-1100C for 5 min and ground into a fine powder; and autoclaved at 6.8 kg pressure for 20 min, cooked, dried, powdered and analyzed for the amino acid pattern. It was found that processing improved the protein quality of legumes in general. Supplementation with the limiting suplhur-containing amino acids further enhanced the protein quality, especially in the autoclaved legumes.This observation is of great value in that autoclaving (common pressure cooking) is commonly-used household method and would improve the diet of the common people. Vallidevi et al. (1972) estimated the thiamine, riboflavin and nicotine acid contents in four dhal varieties, viz. Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan), chickpea (Cicer arietinum), black gram and mungbean dhal, as well as precooked dehydrated dhal prepared from these varieties and stored over a period of one year under ambient conditions. It was observed that a vitamin loss, in the order of 20% to 35% takes place during processing. A further loss of about 10% to 15% also occurred during the storage and reconstitution of these dhals. On the above basis, the net availability of these vitamins ranges from 35% to 50% of the crude form. Devadas et al. (1979) carried out a study to investigate the availability of folic acid from selected germinated cereals and pulses on adolescent girls. The cereals selected were finger millet (Eleusine coracana) and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) and the pulses were chickpea and mungbean. The results revealed that the during germination the folic acid content in cereals and pulses increases up to a period of time after which it declines. In chickpea, mungbean and pearl millet the maximum folic acid content was observed at 72h and in finger millet at 69h after germination. The absorption of folic acid was found to be higher from pulses than from cereals, but because there were wide individual variations the differences in availability among the four foods were not statistically significant. Rao and Tulpule (1980) analysed 18 foods for vitamin B6 content. Among the legumes analyzed pigeonpea dhal, blackgram dhal, chickpea dhal and groundnut were found to be rich sources of vitamin B6 with an average of 5 mg/100 g. Their significance in the improvement of the protein quality of the predominantly cereal based diets have been well recognised. Two major problems which limit the use of pulses are (i) the presence of anti-nutritional factors in them and (ii) the long period of time required for cooking. Legumes are prepared for consumption in several ways such as whole legumes, dehusked split legumes known as dhal in India and by grinding the dhal in a flourmill and is utilised in many common Indian preparations. Compared to animal foods, legume foods have only secondary nutritional value and low utlisation. This has been partially attributed to (i) inherent presence of beany flavours (ii) prolonged preparation and cooking prior to consumption (iii) deficiency of sulphur containing amino acids particularly methionine (iv) presence of several heat stable and heat labile anti-nutritional and toxic factors including enzyme inhibitors, phytohemagglutinins, cyanogenic glucosides, lathyrogens, supenins, estrogens allergens, antivitamins, favism factors and polyphenolic compounds and (v) presence of phytic acid and flatulence causing oligosaccharides. Reduction or elimination of these factors would make grain legumes more acceptable as a source of inexpensive nutritious proteins and maximise their utilisation in human food. Pulses form an important part of the diet in the underdeveloped and the developing countries like India and a number of attempts have been made to improve their nutritional value. Practically all legumes are consumed only after they have been subjected to some form of processing such as heating, roasting, soaking sprouting, boiling and pressure cooking. All these methods are known to improve their palatability and digestability, decrease anti-nutritional factors and convert vital constituents of the pulse into simpler compounds which are ultimately beneficial nutritionally. The legumes generally used in our diets are redgram, blackgram, Bengal gram and greengram. All these legumes provide 18 to 23 percent of protein. Now a days soybean is gaining importance which has 40 percent of protein content and it is an ideal supplement for Protein Calorie Malnutrition because of its high protein and fat contents. Research conducted on Utilisation of Pulses in the Home Science College and Research Institute 1. Extrusion characteristics fo cassava based noodles 2. Visco-amylograph studies of ‘soynoodles’ and rice ‘idiappam’ blends 3. Protein quality of cassava based detatted soy flour noodles 4. Studies on soy incorporated papads 5. Preservation of idli-a south indian fermented food 6. Contamination of idli batter with pathogens during fermentation and preparation of idli 7. Processing of soymilk yogurt 8. Processing of soya curd and its utilisation 9. Studies on the utilisation of soybean 10. Processing of soymilk chum-chum 11. Effect of incorporation of cereal and pulse flour on the characteristics of chapaties suitable for diabetic patients 12. Quality characteristics of pre-release cultures 13. Studies on increasing storage stability of pulses-cow pea 14. Studies on utilisation of soybean in human diet Soybean is superior to most other plant proteins and its essential aminoacid composition compares favorable with that of milk and meal. Soybean which contains 40% protein and 20% oil also contains an unusually large number of biologically active components which are to be eliminated prior human consumption. Most of them are easily digested by heat treatment. The soybeans are processed into various products. By virtue of soybean high and balanced protein contact, soybean should be a better choice than any other pulses. Though soybean is consumed fairly in many oriental countries, numerous attempts to introduce it in the indigenous foods have not succeeded in our country because of the unpleasant beany flavours, difficulty in cooking and the several anti nutritional factors present in the soybean. Research is being conducted to utilise the ‘wonder bean’ ‘golden bean’ in our Indian diet. Soybean Processing Technologies Developed in TNAU Soya Soybean Dhal flour Puffed soya Protein isolate Fried foods Milk, yoghurt, shrikand Podi (Rasam parruppu) vadagam Malted soybean Appalam Sprouted: weaning food Extruded products Bakery products Milling of soybean into dhal Soybean was cleaned and conditioned with 1% water for one minute and rested in a hot sand bath maintained at 120°C for one minute and sieved. The bean was then milled in a minidhal mill and winnowed to separate husk. The dhal was used for further study and milled into soy flour (Full fat). Utilization of Soybean for product development : Puffed Soya The soybean was soaked in 5% salt and 3% sodium bicarbonate for a period of 3 hours. The excess water was drained off and puffed in a hot sand bath maintained at 250°C for 3 –5 minute. The puffed bean was sieved and dehusked manually by rubbing the bean. It was winnowed and used. Puffed soya Soybean ↓ Soaking in chemical solution ↓ Draining ↓ Puffing at 250° C for 3 – 5 min ↓ Sieving ↓ Dehusking ↓ Winnowing ↓ Puffed dhal During soaking and puffing treatments the anti nutritional factors are destroyed and it provide 38.4 g % of protein. This puffed dhal can be used for the preparation of toffee. Malting of soybean Malting also reduces antinutritional factors and the digestibility value is improved. This product can be suggested for children and malted bean could be used for preparing weaning food. A study was conducted utilising malted soya and avocado fruit and weaning food was developed. Soybean ↓ Soaking (6 hrs) ↓ Draining ↓ Germinating (36 hrs) ↓ Drying ↓ Roasting ↓ Removal of shoot in root ↓ winnowing ↓ malted Soya ↓ Milling ↓ Malted Soy flour Soymilk / Soy shrikand / soy yoghurt Soy milk was prepared using soybean and the milk was innoculated with different stains like streptococcus lactis and Lacto bacillus acidophilius and yoghurt was prepared with different fruit flavours and fruit pieces. The nutritive value specially B Vitamins are increased and the product was highly acceptable. Soyadhal – Utilisation in Indian foods : Soybean protein isolate Soybean which is having 40% protein, could be utilised to isolate the protein. The starch is removed and protein is isolated by altering the PH condition and this could be incorporated in the preparation of idli, vadai and other products. Soy podi The soydhal can be utilised in the preparation of Paruppu podi, Rasa podi, Sambar podi upto 50% level. Soyflour utilisation in Indian diet Soyflour both fullfat and defatted could be utilised in the traditional foods (fried foods), vadagam, appalam, extruded products and bakery products. In the traditional foods, soyflour could be incorporated upto 50% level beyond that level perceptible flavour of soybean is pronounced. The traditional foods include, murukku, kharaboondhi, vadai, thatai, karasev, omapodi, idli and dosai. In the preparation of vadagam and appalam only upto 25% is acceptable. Since the starch content of soybean is less the product quality was not obtained beyond. To prevent the browning, protussium metabisulphite of 350 ppm is added to the appalam. Soy appalam could be prepared on commerical basis. Extruded Products Various extruded products like noodles, idiappam, spaghetti, macroni are now fetching importance in the Indian markets. These could be processed with defatted soy flour as convenience foods. Processing of noodles Refined wheat flour + Defatted Soy flour ↓ 2 % Salt ↓ Steaming for 10 min ↓ Kneading into dough ↓ Extruding through extruder ↓ Drying ↓ Packing Bakery Products Bakery products like biscuits, bread, bun and wafers were prepared using soy flour. Both defatted and full fat soy flour were incorporated in the bakery products. To mask the beany flavor different flavoring agents viz, mint, onion and ginger extract were added. A high protein, Vitamin Soy biscuit was also developed in the department. The wafers which is preferred by many school children was also prepared incorporating with defatted Soy flour. Reference Chandrasekhar, U., B.Lalitha and R.P.Devadas, 1981. reviewuation of protein quality of raw, roasted and autoclaved legumes supplemented with sulphur containing aminoacids. Indian J.Nutr. Diet. 18:283-288. Devadas, R.P., S.Premakumari and C.Moorthy.1979. availability of folic acid from selected germinated cereals and pulses. Indian J.Nutr. Diet. 11:257-263. Easwaran, P., G.Srilatha, S.Jamala and R.P.Deadas.1972. reviewuation of the protein of the selected vegetable protein mixtures using albino rats. Indian J.Nutr.Diet. 9:327-330. Gopalan,C., B.V.Ramasastri and S.C.Balasubramanina.1980. Nutritive Value of Indian Foods. National Institute of Nutrition, Ind. Coun. Med. Res., Hyderabad.p.63. Rao,B.S. and P.G.Tulpule.1980. Vitamin B6 content of some Indian foods and regional diets and effect of cooking on the vitamin content. Indian J.Nutr. Diet.18:9-14. Thirumaran,A.S. and Devadas, R.P.1994. Processing and reviewuation of malted millet and pseudo cereal based weaning food mixes. 5th ASEAN Food Conference, Kuala Lumpur.137-139. STATUS OF PULSE MILLING TECHNIQUES Dr. V. V. Sreenarayanan 1 and Dr. CT. Devadas 2 INTRODUCTION The total food grain production of India is 203 million tonnes in the year 1998-99. Out of this, the total pulse production alone is 14.85 million tonnes (Anonymous, 1999). Pulses contain 20-30% protein, which is almost three times higher than that found in cereals. Therefore, pulses offer the most practical means of solving protein malnutrion in the diet of the people of the country, where majority of people are vegetarian. The availability of protein for consumption has gone down steeply on account of inadequate availability of pulses(Anonymous, 1997). Pulses are mainly consumed in the form of dehusked split pulses. There are about 4000 pulses mills (Dhal mills) in India. The average processing capacities of pulses mills in India vary from 10 to 20 tonnes/day. Milling of pulses means removal of outer husk and splitting the grain into two equal halves. Generally, the husk is much more tightly held by the kernel of some pulses than most cereals. Therefore, dehusking of some pulses poses a problem. The method of alternate wetting and drying is used to facilitate dehusking and splitting of pulses. In India the dehusked split pulses are produced by traditional methods of milling. In traditional pulses milling methods, the loosening of husk by conditioning is insufficient. Therefore, a large amount of abrasive force is applied for the complete dehusking of the grains, which results in high losses in the form of brokens and powder. Consequently, the yield of split pulses in traditional mills is only 65 to 70 per cent in comparison to 82 to 85 per cent potential yield. 1. Dean, 2. Professor and Head, Dept. of Agrl. Processing, College of Agrl. Engineering, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore - 3 It is, therefore, necessary to improve the traditional methods of pulses milling to increase the total yield of dehusked and split pulses and reduce the losses. Varieties, Composition and structure Green gram, red gram, Bengal gram, horse gram, cluster bean, filed pea, arhar are some of the common types of pulses. The botanical name of Arhar is Cajanas cajan. Its chemical composition and structure are: Moisture - 10.35 per cent Protein (Nx6.25) - 24.19 per cent Ether extract - 1.89 per cent Ash - 3.55 per cent Crude fibre - 1.01 per cent Carbohydrate - 59.21 per cent The average percentage of husk and endosperm in arhar is 15 per cent and 85 per cent respectively. TRADITIONAL PROCESSING AND UTILISATION OF PULSES Milling of pulses In India there are two conventional pulses milling methods: wet milling method and dry milling method. The latter is more popular and used in commercial mills. Pulses Cleaning Chaffs, dirts etc. Soaking Mixing with red earth Conditioning Dehusking and splitting (Mixture of husk, small broken and powder) Grading Brokens Dehusked split pulses (Grade 1 pulses) TRADITIONAL DRY MILLING METHOD ('DHAL' MILLING) There is no common processing method for all types of pulses. However, some general operations of dry milling method such as cleaning and grading, rolling or pitting, oiling, moistening, drying and milling have been described in subsequent paragraphs (Chakravarthy, 1998). Cleaning and grading Pulses are cleaned from dust, chaff, grits, etc., and graded according to size by a reel type or rotating sieve type cleaner. Pitting The clean pulses are passed through an emery roller machine. In this unit, husk is cracked and scratched. This is to facilitate the subsequent oil penetration process for the loosening of husk. The clearance between the emery roller and cage (housing) gradually narrows from inlet to outlet. As the material is passed through the narrowing clearance, mainly cracking and scratching of husk takes place by friction between pulses and emery. Some of the pulses are dehusked and split during this operation, which are then separated by sieving. Pretreatment with oil The scratched or pitted pulses are passed through a screw conveyor and mixed with some edible oil like linseed oil (1.5 to 2.5 kg/tonne of pulses). Then they are kept on the floor for about 12 hours for diffusion of the oil. Conditioning Conditioning of pulses is done by alternate wetting and drying. After sun drying for a certain period, 3-5 per cent moisture is added to the pulses and tempered for about eight hours and again dried in the sun. Addition of moisture to the pulses can be accomplished by allowing water to drop from an overhead tank on the pulses being passed through a screw conveyor. The whole process of alternate wetting and drying is continued for two to four days until all pulses are sufficiently conditioned. Pulses are finally dried to about 10 to 12 per cent moisture content. Dehusking and splitting Emery roller, known as Gota machine is used for the dehusking of conditioned pulses. About 50 per cent pulses are dehusked in a single operation (in one pass). Dehusked pulses are split into two parts also, the husk is aspirated off and dehusked, split pulses are separated by sieving. The tail pulses and unsplit dehusked pulses are again conditioned and milled as above. The whole process is repeated two to three times until the remaining pulses are dehusked and split. Polishing Polish is given to the dehusked and split pulses by treating them with a small quantity of oil and/or water. Dry milling of Tur The dry milling of tur is generally practised in M.P. and U.P. Raw Tur Chaff and other foreign materials Grading Different grading of Tur Pitting Scratched Tur Application of oil in worm Scratched and oil coated Tur Sundrying and overnight tempering for 2 to 4 days Addition of about 5 per cent water by spraying and overnight moisture equilibration Dehusking and Splitting Aspiration (Husk+Powder) Husked and unhusked whole grains Sieving 'D Cleaning hal'
Wet milling of Tur The flow diagram of the wet milling of Tur is given below ( Kurian, 1979). Raw Tur Soaking in water for 3-12 hours Mixing of soaked pulses with wet earth (5 per cent) Conditioning overnight for moisture diffusion and equilibration Alternate sundrying and tempering for 2-4 days Red earth Separation of red earth from the mixture by sieving Husk and powder Dehusking and splitting of dried pulses by a disc sheeler 'chakki' Unhusked and husked whole grains 'D MODERN CFTRI METHOD OF PUSLES MILLING ( Sahay and Singh, 1994) Cleaning Cleaning is done in rotary reel cleaners to remove all impurities from pulses and separate them according to size. Preconditioning The cleaned pulses are conditioned in two passes in a dryer (LSU type) using hot air at about 120°C for a certain period of time. After each pass, the hot pulses are tempered in the tempering bins for about six hours. The preconditioning of pulses helps in loosening husk significantly. Size separation by sieving hal'
Dehusking The preconditioned pulses are conveyed to the Pearler or Dehusker where almost all pulses are dehusked in a single operation. The dehusked whole pulses (gota) are separated from split pulses and mixture of husk, brokens, etc. (chuni-bhusi) and are received in a screw conveyor where water is added at a controlled rate. The moistened gota is then collected on the floor and allowed to remain as such for about an hour. Raw pulses First conditioning and tempering Second conditioning and tempering Husk Husk and powder Pearling, aspirating (Grade II) Water Mixing Lumped pulses Lump breaking Unsplit Pulses Splitting and sieve grading 'Dhal' (Grade I) Lump Breaking Cleaning and Grading Dhal Polishing Dhal Pearled pulses Conditioning in LSU type aerator
Some of the moistened gota form into lumps of varying sizes. These lumps are fed to the lump breaker to break them. Conditioning and Splitting After lump breaking the gota is conveyed to LSU type of dryer where it is exposed to hot air for a few hours. The gota is thus dried to the proper moisture level for splitting. The hot conditioned and dried dehusked whole pulses are split in the emery roller. All of them are not split in one pass. The mixture is graded into Grade I pulses, dehusked whole pulses ands small brokens. The unsplit dehusked pulses are again fed to the conditioner for subsequent splitting. PEARLER FOR PULSES The pearler consists of a series of cylindrical abrasion stones (6numbers each 1.9 cm thickness), which are mounted on a horizontal shaft without any gap between them. The rotor so formed is mounted in a metal case with a clearance of 1.5 cm is provided at the inlet end of the shaft. An aspirator is provided at the outlet end, so that the fine particles formed during abrasion are automatically removed by the system. Grains are fed into one end of the pearling unit at a uniform rate and collected at the opposite end through an adjustable overflow outlet. The level of grain in the unit is adjustable such that more than 50% of the rotor is covered during operation. Under such conditions, the grains get rubbed and move through the adjustable gate opening. This cycle of operation has to be repeated depending upon the hull/seed coat removal ( Anonymous, 1994). Specification: 1) Speed of the abrasion roller: 1500 rpm 2) Power required: 1Hp electric motor 3) Capacity: 25 Kg/h 4) Approximate cost: Rs.10, 000 MINI DHAL MILL: The dhal mill consists of a feed hopper with feed regulating mechanism. The feed material will pass through a screw auger, which in turn sends the pulses grains in between two abrasion discs. The abrasion discs are housed along the same axis of the screw auger and one of which is rotated by means of 1.0 H.P. electric motor and another is stationary. When the pulses grains pass through in between the abrasion discs by means of shearing action they split in two halves and fall down through the outlet chute. All the pulse grains require premilling treat-ment before milling. The machine can be used for flour making from any grain by replacing the stationary rubber disc into cast iron serrated disc. The breakages of dhal can be minimised by adjusting the clearance between the abrasion discs by means of a screw with handle. The dhal recovery from the mill is about 80 percent the case or red gram and around 92 percent in the case of other pulses (viz. black gram, green gram and horse gram, which inclusive of husk content. The capacity of the machine is 30 kg/h of dhal and the approximate cost of machine is Rs.10, 000/- (with 1 HP motor). By using this machine a small farmer can process his produce himself and get a better return by eliminating the share that goes go to the middlemen (Anonymous, 1994). Salient features: 1. Suitable for splitting all kinds of pulses/grains into dhal at the rate of 30 kg/h 2. Capable of dry milling rice, wheat, jowar, ragi and bajra into flour like rava, suji etc. 3. Smooth running, easy to operate and run by 1.0 H.P. electric motor. 4. Compact, elegant, lightweight and easy for transport. 5. The approximate unit cost Rs.10, 000/-. CONCLUSION Traditional method of pulse milling requires more abrasive force due to improper preconditioning. also the yield by traditional method is only 65 to 70 % in comparison to 82 to 85 % potential yield. Modern method of pulse milling viz., CFTRI method and mini dhal mill increases the yield and also minimises the brokens. Preconditioning before splitting also has significant effect on grade of dhal. REFERENCES Anonymous, 1999. The Hindu, Survey of Indian Agriculture. Anonymous, 1977. analysis of FAO survey on post harvest crop losses in developing countries (AGPP. Misc./ 27). Food and Agriculture Organisation of United Nation, Rome. Anonymous, 1994. Research Digest (1972 - 1990). Published by Dept. of Agrl. Processing, TNAU, Coimbatore - 3. Chakravarthy, A. 1995. Post harvest technology of cereals, pulses and oil seeds. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. pvt. Ltd, New Delhi. Kurien, P.p. 1979. Pulse milling in Food Industries, CRTRI, Mysore. pp. 3.1- 3.20. Sahay, S.M. and K.K. Singh. 1994. Unit operations in Agrl. Processing. Vikas publishing house pvt. Ltd. New Dlhi. TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGY FOR INCREASING PULSES PRODUCTION Dr.S.Uthamasamy1 and Dr.S.Palaniswamy 2 The setting Pulses are an important component of Indian diet in the predominantly vegetarian society. Besides being rich source of protein, they are also important for sustainable agriculture, enriching the soil through biological nitrogen fixation. Pulses are a rich source of protein required for human health. The average requirement of protein per capita per day for each kg of body weight of human being is 1 g. Accordingly, an adult man would require about 60 g and adult women 50 g of protein per day. Against requirement of 60 g protein per day, the availability of protein from pulses is around 8 g per capita per day, the balance coming from other sources like cereals, eggs, milk, fruits etc. All sections of the people, from different income groups belonging to both rural and urban locations consume pulses at varying levels. However, per capita availability of pulses has been declining consequent to the rapid growth in population and relatively lower pulses production. Pulse crops are equally important for maintaining soil health and sustainability of different cropping systems. Introduction of pulses in cereal - cereal - based cropping systems such as rice-wheat will add to the sustainability of these systems by ensuring both nitrogen economy and improved soil health. An estimated amount of 30 to 147 kg/ha nitrogen can be fixed by different pulse crops in the soils in which they are grown. The crop production technologies generated during the green revolution period in the mid-sixties had revolutionised Indian agriculture, leading to a record food grain production of 202.54 million tonnes during 1998-99 compared to 72.3 million tonnes in 1965-66. However, application of new technologies did not result 1. Director of Extension Education, TNAU,Coimbatore-641 003 2. Deputy Director (Extension), DEE,TNAU,Coimbatore-641 003. in similar impact on all crops. For example, the productivity of rice increased from 862 kg/ha in 1965-66 to 1905 kg/ha in 1998-99 and that of wheat increased from 827 to 2595 kg/ha, whereas that of pulses increased from 438 to 622 kg/ha only during the same period. India has the largest acreage and production of pulses accounting for 37% of the area and 27% of the world production. About 90% of the total global pigeonpea, 65% of chickpea and 37% of lentil area falls in India with corresponding production of 93,68 and 32% of global production respectively. The production of pulses has increased at a relatively much slower rate than desired in the last two lecades. As a result, the per capita availability of pulses has declined from 60.7 g during 1951 to 40 g/day/capita during 1998 due to increased population. However, the total production falls short of the requirement. The prospects of import of pulses not being bright, the domestic demand will have to be met by increasing production of pulses. In India, the productivity of pulse crops is low because of several constraints. These include inadequate availability of quality seed of improved and high yielding varieties, cultivation of crops in the poor and marginal lands under rainfed conditions without recommended input application, high-risks with severe price fluctuations , pest menace and inadequate promotional/development efforts. The farmers are reluctant to increase the area under pulses because of uncertainity about the market prices and fluctuations in production from year to year. Considering the importance of pulses for the sustainability of various cropping systems and their role towards household nuitrition security, efforts are required to raise their domestic production sustainability. While there appears to be good scope for the expansion of area under pulses, the major thrust required now is to improve productivity. To achieve this, research, extension and other developmental activities will have to be accelerated on a mission mode approach. Transfer of Technology Activities of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural Univesity The Directorate of Extension Education of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University is primarily responsible for expeditious transfer of the latest technologies emanating from various research programmes of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University to the farming community and extension personnel through the Transfer of Technology Centres (TOT) such as Krishi Vigyan Kendras, Plant Clinic Centres, Communication Centre, Training Division etc. The salient TOT activities are as follows : Communication Centre The Communication Centre at Coimbatore disseminates the innovations of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University through mass media like radio, dailies, farm magazines, publications, video programmes and Doordarshan. It also conducts distant learning programme like farm school on All India Radio and Correspondence Courses on various subject matter areas for the benefit of farming commutity. Farm School on All India Radio The Farm School on All India Radio programme for a duration of 3 months is regularly conducted on agriculture and allied topics in collaboration with All India Radio Stations in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. In all the crop oriented topics of farm School on All India Radio, adequate emphasis is given on Integrated Pest Management (IPM), Integrated Nutrient Management (INM), Integrated Water Management (IWM) etc., to inclucate knowledge among the farmers. So far, 132 lessons on various topics were organised for the benefit of more than 37,500 farmers. Correspondence Courses In the correspondence courses, topics for a duration of 3 months on various aspects of agriculture and related sciences are regularly offered for the benefit of farmers. Nearly 12 - 15 courses per year on various topics are conducted. So far, 193 correspondence courses were conducted for the benefit of 11,000 farmers. Topics for the farm school on All India Radio and Correspondence Courses were finalised based on the interaction meeting with University scientists, media persons, progressive farmers, etc. to suit the changing scenario in agriculture. Audio cassette lessons Audio cassette lessons in agriculture and allied topics are regularly prepared and sold at a nominal cost for the benefit of farmers. Audio cassette lessons on more than 35 topics were produced and distributed for the benefit of farming community. Video library Production and distribution of video cassettes in agriculture and allied sciences to needy farmers is done since 1987. Development departments and NGOs avail this technology. Many important topics on pest and disease control measures in different crops, IPM, biocontrol agents, biopesticides, farm implements, crop varieties, horticulture etc. were produced and sold to the farmers. So far, more than 100 video lessons were produced. Agricultural Information Service The Agricultural Information Service established at the main campus is mainly responsible for finalishing messages relevant to the season for dissemination to farming community through various mass media. This centre also issue press notes highlighting the on - going research programmes, findings of completed research projects and TOT activities. Training to extension personnel The Training Unit of the Directorate of Extension Education is actively engaged in training of extension functionaries of development departments, input agencies, NGOs, nationalised banks on various topics of state and national importance. State level and national level training programmes on biocontrol agents, IPM, organic farming etc. are offered periodically. So far, 734 trainings were conducted by the Training unit for the benefit of 13877 participants. Training to farmers Krishi Vigyan Kendras The Krishi Vigyan Kendras located at Coimbatore, Madurai, Sirugamani, Vridhachalam and Sandhiyur facilitate the process of dissemination of technology through Monthly Zonal Workshops, training programmes, skill demonstrations, kisan melas, village meetings, seminars, campaigns, front line demonstrations, model village adoption etc. Plant Clinic Centres The Plant Clinic Centres located at Bhavanisagar, Virinjipuram, Tirur, Killikulam and Srivilliputhur are engaged in TOT activities in solving field problems, identification of pest and diseases and suggesting remedial measures, on-farm testing of pre-release cultures, management practices and plant protection methods, surveillance work for forecasting pests and disease ourbreak etc. The Plant Clinic Centre are located at the research stations with scientists from plant protection disciplines. In the TOT activities of the Plant Clinic Centre, much emphasis is on the IPM concept on control of pest and diseases with use of bio-control and biopesticides. Joint Diagnostic Team The joint diagnostic team constituted with scientists and officials of development departments in each district visits the farmers fields and render effective farm advisory services and remedial measures for field problems including plant protection aspects. Publications The TNAU Newsletter published during the first week of every month, highlights the research and extension activities carried out in various research stations and TOT centres of the University. The TNAU Seithi Madal in Tamil is brought out on 1st of every Tamil month. Seasonal and location based messages including pest and disease outbreak, plant protection aspects etc, are disseminated regularly for the benefit of farmers. Valarum Velanmai, a tamil monthly is published with the inclusion of articles of location specific and seasonal importance for the benefit of the farmers. In all articles on crop production technologies, adequate emphasis is given to include plant protection practices with IPM technologies. Mushroom Seithi Madal, a quarterly newsletter in tamil published by the centre for Plant Protection Studies for the benefit of progressive farmers and entrepreneurs engaged in mushroom cultivation on commercial basis. Uzhavar Thunaivan, a bi-monthly farm journal published by the Agricultural College and Research Institute, Madurai for the benefit of Southern Tamil Nadu. Frontline Demonstration on Pulses The ICAR sponsored frontline demonstrations are being conducted on Pulses through the five Krishi Vigyan Kendras of the Tamil Nadu Agricultural Universtiy located at Coimbatore, Madurai, Sirugamani, Vridhachalam and Sandhiyur with a view to demonstrate the production potentialities of the important pulses in the farmers field by adoption of recommended practices. During 1999- 2000, the Krishi Vigyan Kendras had organised the Frontline Demonstrations on pulses as indicated below : Crop S.No. Centre Greengram Blackgram Area (ha) No. of Demonstrations Area (ha) No. of Demonstrations 1. KVK, Coimbatore 10 11 10 15 2. KVK,Madurai 5 10 - - 3. KVK,Sirugamani - - 5 12 4. KVK,Vridhachalm 5 9 5 5 TOTAL 20 30 20 32 Yield increase was noticed in all the pulse crop as against the local variety to the tune of 40 to 60%. Thus, the FLD enabled the farmers to obtain additional income by way of cultivating pulses in their fields. Success stories of the farmers were published in local dailies and farm magazines to show the utility of the FLD. Strategies of transfer of technologies Keeping the importance of increasing pulses production in the state, the extension mechanism should adopt the following stragegies to promote the technology transfer efforts to user pulses production. • Identification and popularisation of appropriate, need based and location specific pulses production technologies. • Organising more number of skill oriented demonstrations and technology based off-campus trainings on technologies of pulses production in the villages to ensure more participation of farmers, farm youths, farm women etc. • Strengthening the linkage among state development departments, NGOs, input agencies, farmers organisations etc. to promote the percolation of production technology for pulses. • Refinement of technologies on pulses should be taken up as and when needed based on feedback from farmers. • Case study and feedback analysis on the impact of pulses production technologies among the farmers are to be undertaken periodically and results communicated to the research system. • More number of front line demonstrations on pulses are to be conducted through KVKs of SAUs to show the efficacy of pulses technologies. • Success stories of the farming community on adoption of pulses production technology should be periodically published in leading farm journals and dailies for creation of awareness and wider dissemination of technologies. • Farmers clubs in all the districts are to be established to facilitate interaction and quick technology transfer. • Effective use of modern and electronic gadgets in the dissemination of pulses technology should be ensured. • More number of farmers discussion groups in the rural areas are to be established to promote exchange of ideas among them. PROCEEDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The State Level Seminar on "Increasing Productivity of Pulses in Tamil Nadu" was organized by TNAU at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban on 22.09.2000. Prof.Dr.S.Kannaiyan, Vice-Chancellor, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore–3 presided over the seminar. Th.K.Seerangan, Additional Director of Agri.(Inputs), Chennai was representing the Director of Agriculture. A total of 33 delegates consisting of 26 scientists from Tamil Nadu Agricultural University and 7 delegates from the Department of Agriculture participated in the seminar. (Annexure). Dr.S.Ramanathan, Director, Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute Aduthurai welcomed the gathering. Dr.M.Subramanaian, Director of Research, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore in his inaugural address said that satisfactory progress could not be made in the productivity and production of Pulses as that of cereals and oilseeds. He has stated that from an area of 9.5 lakh hectares under pulses in Tamil Nadu a meager production level of 4.08 lakh tones of pulses only could be produced annually with a productivity level of 450 kg/ha. He said that the low productivity level of pulses was due to their cultivation in marginal and submarginal lands, under rainfed conditions and low adoption levels of improved technologies. He was of the opinion that the area expansion of pulses was not recorded even though a lot of improved pulses varieties are made available, therefore he said that pulses area should be increased with new high yielding varieties particularly under irrigated conditions. He also emphasized the need for intercropping of pulses in tapioca, cotton, sugarcane crops, and expansion of pulses cultivation under rice fallow which would produce more pulses in the State. He said that out of 21 lakh hectares available under rice fallows in Tamil Nadu, only 2.8 lakh hectares are cultivated with rice fallow pulses. He wanted ADT 3,4 blackgram and ADT 1,2,3 greengram should be cultivated under rice fallows and ADT 5 blackgram under irrigated conditions during summer. He highlighted that use of poor quality seeds with poor germination and prolonged North East monsoonic showers in the initial stage, low level adoption of DAP foliar spary, problems associated with plant protection and the increasing area of cash crops like cotton under rice fallows were the main reasons for reduced production from rice fallow pulses. Mr.K.Seerangan, Additional Director (inputs) in his address, thanked the Vice-Chancellor for having organized "Pulses Seminar" at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban, which is very important currently to discuss the various issues on pulses production. He told that rainfed pulses occupied 50% of total pulse area in Tamil Nadu followed by rice fallow pulses (30%) and irrigated pulses (20%). He lauded the efforts of Scientists of TNAU in developing improved pulse varieties suitable for different agro-climatic zones of Tamil Nadu. He felt happy to pointout that Vamban 1 redgram is performing better under irrigated conditions during summer and farmers are willing to grow this variety as pure crop, and ADT3 blackgram and ADT 3 greengram varieties are also performing well, He also said that under rice fallow conditions, folair spary of DAP had pronounced effect in increasing the yield and he requested the Joint Director of Agricultures to widely propagate this technology through effective extension methods. Prof.Dr.S.Kannaiyan, the Vice-Chancellor, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, in his presidential address pointed out that pulses production in the state remains stagnated over years because of many reasons, of which growing pulses largely in marginal lands and less than 20% of pulses area alone under irrigation prone to pests and disease, and wilting due to severe drought, tendency to have more vegetative growth under high moisture conditions and lack of proper seed storage facilities are very important. Prof.S.Kannaiyan, Vice-Chancellor said that a holistic approach is needed to harness the yield potential of pulses. In the case of greengram he suggested that new varieties like CO 6 and Pusa Bold should be promoted for large scale cultivation and horsegram, which is grown in about 1.23 lakhs in Coimbatore and Dharmapuri districts has good potential in other districts also. The Vice-Chancellor stated producing and distributing good quality seeds at correct season should be given importance. He also suggested that in case of rice fallows and rainfed conditions, seed rate should be increased to maintain optimum plant population and correct time of sowing (January 15- February) should be followed, along with foliar sparying of DAP at the time of flowering. In redgram, the Vice-Chancellor observed that spraying NAA@ 40 ppm and salicylic acid @ 50 g/500 lit /ha prevented flower dropping and induced synchronized flowering. He is of the opinion that consumer value addition to the products from the pulses should be given due attention to increase the consumption level of pulses to alleviate malnutrition. In the technical session, twelve theme papers were presented. Dr.M.Subramanian, Director of Research , in his presentation, informed about various edible pulse crops in the country and also high lighted that (i) more than 78% of area of pulses under rainfed conditions (22.39 m.ha) (ii) Low level of fertilization (iii) Uncertainity in weather conditions (iv) high incidence of pests and diseases (v) poor crop care by farmers and (vi) poor seed storability were the main reasons for low production of pulses in Tamil Nadu. While elaborating on pulses varieties he said that TNAU has evolved many short, medium long, perennial and pigeonpea cultivars which are largely under cultivation in Tamil Nadu. Vamban 1 and APK 1 redgram he said, are the early varieties (105 days duration), CO 5 medium in duration (125 days) variety and CO6 and Vamban 2 are long duration types, (180 days). He informed that BSR 1 perennial redgram is best suited for bund cropping with an yield level of 2 kg plant. He also pointed out that the hybrid pigeonpea COPH 2 is well suited for all seasons with an yield potential of 1050 kg/ha. He told that (i) poor seed viability (ii) temperature sensitivity – as the crop tends to wilt beyond 34° C at reproductive phase (iii) excess vegetative growth (iv) susceptible to MYMV (v) non dibbling of seeds and (vi) paucity of residual moisture in rice fallows are the main reasons for the failure of soybean in the State He stressed the need for using good quality seeds, correct time of sowing (January 15 – February 15), maintaining optimum plant population, foliar spary of DAP at flowering stage, seed hardening to overcome drought and need based plant protection for the successful cultivation of rice fallow pulses, and highlighted the following aspects as important thrusts for pulse improvement. • Pulse varieties responsive to high inputs • Early varieties suitable for specific situations & multiple cropping • Stepping up seed production levels in hybrid pigeonpeas • Exploiting biotechnological approaches for YMV and SMD resistance • Utilizing marker aided selection procedures and identification of CMS lines in developing pulse hybrids • More research on physiological and nutritional aspects • Research on post-harvest technology • More use of bio-fertilizers and emphasis on Integrated Nutrient Management Dr.S.Ramanathan, Director, Tamil Nadu Rice Research Institute, Aduthuari, in his address stressed the need for the importance of "Integrated Nutrient Managament" in rice fallow pulses of Cauvery Delta Zone. He is of the opinion that though better performing rice fallow and summer pulses like ADT 3, ADT 4, ADT 5 blackgram varieties and ADT 1,2,3 greengram varieties are available Breeders’ / Nucleus seed indent for these varieties was very low. While highlighting the problems associated with rice-fallow pulses cultivation, he said that flower dropping in pulses remains a major problem because of cleistogamy in blackgram and greengram, and wanted early detection of Cyto-plasmic Male Sterile lines for hybrid seed production in pigeon pea. Since field – levelling is not given proper attention, the Director TRRI said that seed germination and crop stand are poor under rice-fallow system. He suggested that increasing pod length and seed numbers through genetic manipulation could increase productivity. He also pointed out that, labour shortage for harvesting the rice fallow pulses is currently on the increase, therefore utilization of machinery for the purpose is the need of the hour. He observed that use of quality bio-fertilizers is very minimal and foliar spray of 2% DAP is also adopted only on a low scale due to water scarcity at the time of flowering in rice-fallow pulses. He requested that combined foliar spray of 2% DAP, 1% MOP and 40 ppm NAA has been found to be effective in enhancing the grain yield by 20% in pulses and this practice needed promotion. He said that if rockphosphate / Udaipur phosphate is used in the proceeding rice crop instead of Single Super phosphate, residual phosphorus may be available more to the succeeding pulses which will increase seed set. He pointout that the length of rice stubbles has a profound effect on pulses seed germination, stubbles with 4" height and fallow pulses sown in that condition would improve germination compared to 6" long stubbles. In order to increase the seed-fall to the ground, he suggested that the pulse seeds may be pelletted with clay before sowing which indirectly enhances seed germination. The Director TRRI, Aduthurai pointout that though prodenia incidence is common, it can be controlled with the help of pheromone traps and insecticides and also wanted that identified Pod borer resistant blackgram cultures viz., ADB 2027, ADB 2045, COBG 593, VBG 52 and VBG 55 need to be popularized for large scale cultivation. Dr.T.M.Thiyagarajan, Director, Soil and Crop Management Studies, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore in his talk on ‘Dryland Technology for Pulses Production" outlined the need for judicious utilization of the rainfall and conserving moisture through management practices like compartmental bunding. In the case of redgram, he said that foliar spray of salicylic acid (100 ppm) on 30th and 50th day alongwith NAA 40 ppm arrests vegetative phase and stimulate flowering. He also said that foliar spray of 1% Kcl found to increase yield in pulse under drought. He advocated the basal application of ‘K’ only for deficit soils. Dr.MohanaSundaram, Professor and Head, National Pulses Research Centre Vamban highlited the research efforts on the varietal improvement of pulses. Dr.A.R.Muthiah, Professor and Head, Department of Pulses, Tamil Nadu Agricultual University, Coimbatore gave a brief account on the prospects of summer irrigated pulses in Tamil Nadu. He advocated ADT 5 blackgram and CO 6 greengram for irrigated condition in summer. Under irrigated conditions he pointed out that CO 12 and CO 13 (bush type) garden bean varieties with an yield potential of about 10-13 tonnes (fresh wt.) / ha have good prospects for further promotion. Mr.D.Balachander, Assistant Professor (Micro.) spoke in detail about the bio-fertilizers and said that biofertilizer alone could replace about 50% applied fertilizers and dual inoculation of Rhizobium and phosphobacteria has a profound effect on enhancing the pulses stand and yield. He also pointed out that the limitations such as the non-availability of Rhizobium responsive genotypes, non availability of micronutrients like Cobalt, Iron, Molydbdenum and Boran under acidic soils, thermosensitivity of Rhizobium under extreme temperature (maximum 35°C), and rapid movement under high moisture regimes, presence of native Rhizobia which hinder the activity of applied Rhizobium and lower level of nodulation under high soil nitrogen status should be overcome through intensive research. He wanted, the future thrust should be more on genetic improvement of Rhizobium, acid , salt, temperature, water, herbicide and phage tolerant rhizobia with high amount of competitiveness against native microflora. Dr.Krishnasamy, Professor and Head, Department of Seed Science and Technology emphasized the importance of seed hardening technique using KCl, Prosophis leaf extract 1% or Pungam 1% by soaking the seeds of black gram for 6 hrs, and then pelleting with gypsum or DAP before sowing which enhanced germination and yield. He observed that bold seeded greengram had no hard seeds unlike small seeds. He highlighted the concept of ‘Seed Village’ for maintaining the quality and purity of pulses seeds. Dr.A.Manickam, Professor (Bio-Chem.) gave a detailed account of tagging genes for MYMV resistance in greengram using PCR technique. Dr.K.Guna sekaran, Assistant Professor (Ento.) in his speech emphasized the need for IPM i.e; use of pheromone traps, bird perhes, NPV and botanicals in Pulses. Dr.T.Raghuchander, Assistant Professor (Path.) had said that use of resistant varieties, seed treatment with Trichoderma virdie and Psuedomonas flourescens, cultural practices like barrier cropping against ‘YMV’ and use of botanicals like neem oil and NSKE 5% are the most important components in Integrated Disease Management. Dr.Mrs.Susheela Thirumaran, Dean, College of Home Science, Madurai presented a detailed lecture on the role of pulses in alleviating malnutrition. She said that germinated greengram has a greater role as a rich protein supplement both as child and weaning food alongwith malted ragi. The technical session was followed by group discussion among the delegates to formulate strategies for enhancing pulses productivity. Finally Mr.Muthukumaran, Joint Director of Agriculture, Pudukkottai proposed the vote of thanks. Minutes of Group discussion Constraint Suggestion 1. Under rice fallow system • Seed germination, crop stand and grain yields are low in pulses • Foliar spray of DAP 2% using H/V sprayer poses practical difficulties.(Joint Director of Agriculture Thanjavur). 1. Use of higher seed rate (30 kg/ha) 2. Use of 2 kg of sprouted seeds as supplement 3. Clay pelleting of pulse seeds before sowing 4. Maintaining the stubble height as low as 4" w possible in paddy crop 5. Promoting the use of Rock phosphate in Single Super Phosphate for paddy crop to en availability of residual phosphorus to the su pulse crop 6. Giving supplemental irrigation at pod form arrest pod dehiscene and allowing the pulse second flush of pods (in another 25-30 days a 5 blackgram) 7. Foliar spray of DAP 2% may be attempted volume sprayer using about 60 lit. spray experimental basis before large scale r dation. (Director of Research; Director, Soil Management Studies, Tamil Nadu Agrl. U Director, Tamil Nadu Rice Research Aduthruai). 2. MLT of rice fallow pulses may be conducted in all potential areas in the State. Bengalgram and Pea may be promoted in Conoor and Theni belts (Vice-Chancellor, TNAU) This request will be taken care of (Director of Tamil Nadu Agrl. University, Coimbatore) Constraint Suggestion 3. Area specific Rhizobia may be supplied fromTNAU research stations under strict quality control (Joint Director of Agriculture, Pudukkottai) Steps will be taken to fulfill this demand (Vice-Chancellor, TNAU) 4. The ident for Breeders’ Seeds of pulses from State Department of Agriculture is now very low for the recently released pulses varieties and it should be increased every year This will be given due consideration and attention (Joint Director of Agriculture, Pulses, Chennai) (Director of Research, TNAU, Coimbatore) 5. Long duration blackgram, greengram and cowpea varieties are also needed for seasons under inclement weather conditions (Joint Director of Agriculture, Pudukottai) Since pulses are largely grown as rainfed crops, much focus is given for shortening their duration so water requirements were also minimal (Vice-Chancellor, TNAU, Coimbatore) The following long duration pulses are available Greengram (CO 3) – 85 days Greengram (Paiyur 1) – 90-95 days Cowpea (Paiyur 1) – 90-95 days (Dr.A.R.Muthiah, Professor and Head, Pulses, Coimbatore and Dr.Suresh, Assoc. Prof. (Breed), Research Staion, Paiyur) State level Seminar Pulses Production Technology held on 22.09.2000 at National Pulses Research Centre, Vamban Recommendations on Pulses production techniques S.No . Technologi es Crops Irrigate d Rainfed Rice fallow Intercroppin g 1. Varieties Blackgra m ADT, CO 5, Vamban 1, 2 and 3 Vamban1 , Vamban 2, APK 1, Vamban 3, CO 5 ADT3, ADT 4 BSR 1 Redgram + Turmeric BSR 1 Redgram as border crop Greengra m CO 6 CO 6, Paiyur1, Vamban1 ADT 3, Pusabol d Tapioca + KM 2 Redgram COPH 2, CO 5, APK 1, Vamban 1 Vamban 2 BSR 1 (Perennia l) -- Greengram + Sorghum K1 Greengram + Cotton APK 1 Blackgram + Cotton Vamban 1 Redgram + Groundnut Cowpea CO 6 CO 6, Vamban 1, CO 2, Vamban 2 (Vegetable) -- -- Soybean CO 1, CO 2 -- ADT 1 -- Seed rate Blackgram 20 kg/ha 30 kg/ha 30 kg/ha -- and Greengram supplemental seed rate of 2 kg/ha sprouted seeds (Seeds soaked in water for 6 hours allowed for sprouting) Redgram Short duration 25 kg/ha 25 kg/ha -- -- Long duration 10 kg.ha 10 kg/ha -- -- Cowpea 20 kg/ha 20 kg/ha -- -- Soybean 80 kg/ha -- 80 kg/ha -- S.No. Technologies Crops Irrigated Rainfed 2. Seed treatment For all pulses Pelleting with DAP 40 g/kg + Gypsum 250 g/kg, maida 10% as sticking agent 150 ml/kg seed + Bio-fertilizer one packet each of specific Rhizobium culture Antagonistic bacteria and Phospho bacteria for every 10 kg of seeds + bio-control Pseudomonas flurescence 10 g/kg, Trichoderma viride 4 g/kg of seeds a) Pre-conditioning Spreading the seeds on a moist gunny bag and covering with moist gunny bag for one hour b) Soaking for one hour with one Kg seed in 300 ml solution of one per cent prosopis fresh leaf extract c) Shade drying d) Pelletting with DAP 40 g/kg + Gypsum 250 g/kg, maida 10% as sticking agent 150 ml/kg Procedure : A coating of sticker followed by a layer of gypsum then sticker then remaining gypsum, again sticker followed by bio-fertilizers and bio control agents seed + Bio-fertilizer one packet each of specific Rhizobium culture Antagonistic bacteria and Phospho bacteria for every 10 kg of seeds + bio control Pseudomonas fluescense 10 g/kg, Trichoderma viride 4g/kg of seeds Procedure : A coating of sticker followed by a layer of gypsum then sticker, powered DAP, sticker then remaining gypsum, again sticker followed by bio-fertilizers and bio-control agents S.No. Technologies Crops Irrigated Rainfed Rice fallow 3. Spacing Blackgram 30 x 10 cm 30 x 10 cm Broadcasting Greengram 30 x 10 cm 30 x 10 cm Broadcasting Redgram – long duration 90 x 30 cm 90 x 30 cm -- Redgram shortduration 45 x 20 cm 45 x 20 cm -- Cowpea CO2, CO3 & Vamban 2 45 x 15 cm 45 x 15 cm -- Cowpea – other varieties 30 x 15 cm 30 x 15 cm -- Soybean CO 1 30 x 10 cm -- Broadcasting Soybean CO 2 30 x 5 cm -- Broadcasting 4. Gapfilling 2 kg of sprouted seeds 5. Organic manure (Basal application) Blackgram, Greengram, Redgram, Cowpea 12.5 t/ha 12.5 t/ha -- 6. Nitrogen -- 25 kg/ha 12.5 kg/ha -- Soybean 20 kg/ha -- 7. Phosphorus Blacgram, Greengram, Redgram, Cowpea 50 kg/ha 40 kg/ha -- Soybean 80 kg/ha -- -- S.No. Technologies Crops Irrigated Rainfed Rainfallow 8. Potash Blackgram, Greengram, Redgram, Cowpea 20 kg/ha 20 kg/ha -- Soybean 40 kg/ha -- -- 9. Gypsum All pulses 111 kg/ha 111 kg/ha -- 10. Zinc sulphate All pulses 25 kg/ha -- -- 11. Foliar spraying DAP 2% + MOP + NAA 40 ppm (At first flowering and again at 15 days after) -- 12. Weed Management All pulses Preplant incorporation / preemergence : Fluchloralin 1.51 / ha Intercropping with sorghum : Metolachlor 2.01/ha Herbicide application followed by hand weeding with in 30 days after sowing -- S.No. Technologies Crops Irrigated Rainfed 13. Intercropping -- a) Sugarcane + Blackgram b) Turmeric + Redgram c) Cotton + Blackgram a) Groundnut + Redgram b) Groundnut + short duration Redgram (4:1) c) Sorghum + Blackgram / Greengram d) Redgram + Blackgram / Greengram (2:1) e) Semi-dry rice + Blackgram / Greengram (4:1) 14. Pest Management Redgram 1. Erecting bird perches @ 50/ha 2. Installation of phermone traps for Helicoverpa @ 12/ha 3. Spraying Neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5% at 50% flowering 4. Spray dichlorvos 76 SC 500ml/ha for blister beetle and Maruca testtulalis 5. Spraying HaNPV at 500 LE/ha 6. Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC 625 ml or endosulfan 35 C 1250 l/ha 7. Spraying chlorphyriphos 0.05% (if warranted) 1. Erecting bird perches @ 50/ha 2. Spraying Neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5% at 50% flowering 3. Application of any one of the following dusts at 25 kg/ha a. Endosulfan 4% b. Quinalphos 15. Insect Pest Stemfly management Blackgram, Greengram, Cowpea Apply carbofuran 30G (30 KG) or aldicarp 10g (10kg)/ha in the soil at the time of sowing or spray endosulfan 35 EC 500 m/ha a week after germination and again at 10 days after Seed pelleting with dimethoate 5ml/kg followed by spraying of endosulfan 35EC 500 ml/ha Seed pelleting with dimethoate 5 ml/kg followed by spraying of endosulfan 35EC 500 ml/ha 16. Sucking pests management - do - If sucking pests are noted spray methyl demeton 25 EC 500 ml or monocrotophos 36 WSC 500 ml/ha --- If sucking pests are noted spray methyl demeton 25 EC 500 ml of dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml or monocrotophos 36 WCS 500 ml/ha 17. Pod Borers management - do - Spray endosulfan 35 EC 1000 ml/ha or monocrotophos 36 WSC 500 ml/ha To protect inflorescence and pods apply any one of the following at 25 kg/ha. Quinalphos 4% dust Endosulfan 4% dust Phosalone 4% dust --- 18. Disease control Sterility mosaic Redgram Vector control Monocrotophos 500 ml/ha on noticing the symptom and repeat after a fortnight 19. Root rot/wilt management - do - Seed treatment with carbendazim @ 2g/kg or Trichoderma viride @ 4g/kg Pseudomonas florescens (10g/kg) before sowing 20. Yellow mosaic, Leaf crinkle, Leaf curl Pulses other than redgram a) Use resistant varieties b) Rouging of infected plants upto 30 days of sowing at weekly interval c) Virus vecror control : Moncrotophos @ 500 ml/ha or Methyl demeton @ 500 ml/ha at the appearance of disease and repeat at 10 days interval or spraying NSKE 5% or spray dimethoate 500 ml/ha. 21. Leaf spot " Carbendazim 50 WP (0.1%) may be sprayed 22. Powdery mildew / rust " Wettable sulphur 2.5 kh/ha or Mancozeb 1.0 kg/ha 23. Root rot/wilt All Pulses Seed treatment with Carbendazim @ 2g/ha or Trichoderma viride @ 4g/ha 24. Pre-harvest sanitation spray against bruchid All Pulses Endosulphan 0.07% + Carbendizem 0.1% at 10 days before harvest 25. Drying of grains All Pulses 10% moisture 26. Grain storage for seed purpose All Pulses a. Thiram 75% WP (2.0 g/kg + Carbaryl 50% WP (200 mg/kg) in 5 ml water or b. Activated clay @a (10 g/kg) or c. Neem Oil 910 ml/kg) of seed Malathion dust 10 g/kg, Thiram 2g + Carbaryl 200 mg/kg of seed) 27. Grain storage for consumption All Pulses TNAU Neem Oil formulation (10 ml/kg) or Neem Oil (10 ml/kg)