bio fertilizer

Biofertilizer
Biofertilizers are defined as preparations containing living cells or latent cells of efficient strains of microorganisms that help crop plants’ uptake of nutrients by their interactions in the rhizosphere when applied through seed or soil. They accelerate certain microbial processes in the soil which augment the extent of availability of nutrients in a form easily assimilated by plants.
Very often microorganisms are not as efficient in natural surroundings as one would expect them to be and therefore artificially multiplied cultures of efficient selected microorganisms play a vital role in accelerating the microbial processes in soil.
Use of biofertilizers is one of the important components of integrated nutrient management, as they are cost effective and renewable source of plant nutrients to supplement the chemical fertilizers for sustainable agriculture. Several microorganisms and their association with crop plants are being exploited in the production of biofertilizers. They can be grouped in different ways based on their nature and function.
S. No.
Groups
Examples
N2 fixing Biofertilizers
1.
Free-living
Azotobacter, Beijerinkia, Clostridium, Klebsiella, Anabaena, Nostoc,
2.
Symbiotic
Rhizobium, Frankia, Anabaena azollae
3.
Associative Symbiotic
Azospirillum
P Solubilizing Biofertilizers
1.
Bacteria
Bacillus megaterium var. phosphaticum, Bacillus subtilisBacillus circulans, Pseudomonas striata
2.
Fungi
Penicillium sp, Aspergillus awamori
P Mobilizing Biofertilizers
1.
Arbuscular mycorrhiza
Glomus sp.,Gigaspora sp.,Acaulospora sp., Scutellospora sp. & Sclerocystis sp.
2.
Ectomycorrhiza
Laccaria sp., Pisolithus sp., Boletus sp., Amanita sp.
3.
Ericoid mycorrhizae
Pezizella ericae
4.
Orchid mycorrhiza
Rhizoctonia solani
Biofertilizers for Micro nutrients
1.
Silicate and Zinc solubilizers
Bacillus sp.
Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria
1.
Pseudomonas
Pseudomonas fluorescens

DUCK REARING

Breeds
Care of breeders
Care of growing duck
Care of laying ducks
Housing and Feeding
Health care



DUCK REARING
General Information
Duck is the common name for a number of species in the Anatidae family of birds. The ducks are divided between several subfamilies listed in full in the Anatidae article. Ducks are mostly aquatic birds, mostly smaller than their relatives the swans and geese, and may be found in both fresh water and sea water. Most ducks have a wide flat beak adapted for dredging. They exploit a variety of food sources such as grasses, aquatic plants, fish, insects, small amphibians, worms, and small molluses.
Ducks occupy an important position next to chicken farming in India. They form about 10% of the total poultry population and contribute about 6-7% of total eggs produced in the country. Ducks are mostly concentrated in the Eastern and Southern States of the country mainly coastal region with non-descriptive indigenous stocks, which however are poor layers. Ducks are comparatively harder than chicken and are easily manageable. They give economic production even during their second year of lay.
BreedsKhaki campbell for egg production and White pekin for meat are the other popular breeds.
Origin of breeds Khaki Campbell Egg type parent stocks imported from U.K. These are prolific layers which can give up to 300 eggs per laying cycle. These birds are very much suitable for rural development programmes for sustainable economical development in rural areas.
Among the egg laying breeds, Khaki Campbell is the best producer. Individual egg production of almost an egg a day in this breed for well over twelve months has been recorded and flock averages in excess of 300 eggs per duck per year are not uncommon. Khaki Campbell ducks weigh about 2 to 2.2 Kg and drakes 2.2 to 2.4 Kg. Egg weight varies from 65 to 75 gm.
Khaki Campbell
White PekinMeat type imported from Vietnam, suitably adopted for Indian conditions. Pekins are known worldwide for their fast growth rate and good meat convertibility. White Pekin is the most popular duck in the world known for table purpose. It is fast growing and has low feed consumption with fine quality of meat. It attains about 2.2 to 2.5 Kg of body weight in 42 days of age, with a feed conversion ratio of 1:2.3 to 2.7 Kg.
White Pekin
( Source: www.vuatkerala.org )

Care of breeders
Breeder males and females are selected when they are around 6-8 weeks of age. For maximum fertility drakes should be older by 4-5 weeks than females. In flock mating a male female ratio of 1:6 to 1:8 is satisfactory with layer types of ducks while ratio should be narrower for meat type of ducks.
Breeding Ducks
Incubation of duck eggs
The incubation period of ducks is 28 days. Eggs for hatching should be collected only from those flocks that are in lay for about 6-8 weeks. Collection of eggs should be started 10 days after introduction of male. Washing of dirty eggs improves hatchability. Dirty eggs can be washed using warm water at 27oC to which a detergent sanitizer and disinfectant are added. The dip water has to be changed frequently. Washed eggs should be dried and fumigated immediately to prevent rotting.
Incubation

Hatching eggs should be stored in an atmosphere having a temperature of 14oC to 16oC with a relative humidity of 80%. Eggs can be incubated in forced draft incubator with the same temperature for chicken. However, the humidity requirement is higher. This can be achieved by sprinkling lukewarm water from the second day to 23rd day of incubation. Eggs should be turned at least 4 times daily up to the 24th day of incubation. On 24th day of incubation the eggs should be transferred to hatchery.
Emerging of Ducklings
In forced draft incubators satisfactory results are attained at a temperature of 37.5 to 37.2oC (99.5 to 99oF). The wet-bulb reading on the thermometer should be 30 to 31oC (86 to 88oF) during incubation for the first 25 days and 32.7 to 33.8oC (90 to 92oF) for the last three days of hatching. Eggs are sprinkled with lukewarm water having sanitizer once a day from 2nd day to 25th day and cooled for a maximum period of half an hour. Candling is done on 7th day. The eggs are turned hourly. Eggs are transferred to hatchery on 25th day.
Emerged Duckling
Brooding (0-4 Weeks)
The brooding period of Khaki Campbell ducklings is 3 to 4 weeks. For meat type ducklings such as Pekin, brooding for 2 to 3 weeks is sufficient. Provide hover space of 90 to 100 sq.cms. per ducklings under the brooder. A temperature of 29 to 32oC (85 to 90oC) is maintained during the first week. It is reduced by about 3oC per week till it reaches 24oC (75oF) during the fourth week.
Ducklings may be brooded in wire floor, litter or batteries. A wire floor space of 0.046m2 per bird or solid floor space of 0.093 m2 per bird would be sufficient up to 3 weeks of age. Water in the drinkers should be 5 to 7.5 cm (2 to 3”) deep just sufficient to drink and not dip themselves.
Care of growing duck
When ducklings are about 4 weeks of age they can be let out if to be reared on semi-intensive system. In semi-intensive system the stocking rate suggested is about 5000 ducks per hectare. It is preferable to rear them in smaller units of 200 ducks.
Care of ducklings
Under intensive system, growing ducks can be reared on litter or slat floor or a combination. Plenty of water should be available for drinking. The design of waterers should be such that it is sufficiently deep enough to enable the ducks to immerse their bills. A depth of about 13-15 cm will suffice for this purpose.
Duck Pond
Under intensive system, a floor space of 4 to 5 sq.ft. per duck is essential, whereas in semi-intensive system, a floor space of 3 sq.ft. in the night shelter and 10 to 15 sq.ft. as outside run bird would be adequate. For wet mash feeding in a ‘V’ shaped feeder, allow 10 to 12.5 cm. feeding space per duck but for dry mash or pellet feeding adlib in hoppers, a feeding space of 5 to 7.5 cm. per duck would be sufficient.
High egg laying strains of ducks come into production at 16 to 18 weeks of age. About 95 to 98% of eggs are laid by 9.00 AM. One nest box of size 30x 30 x 45 cms (12 x12 x18”) to every three ducks be provided. In case of laying breeds a mating ratio of 1 drake to 6-7 ducks and in table breeds 1 drake to 4-5 ducks is allowed. Photo period of 14 to 16 hours per day is essential for optimum production. In free range, 1000 ducks are kept per 0.405 hectare (1 acre) depending upon greens.
Care of laying ducksDucks lay their eggs in the early morning. An average duck egg weighs about 65-70 g. Ducks normally lay when they are about 5-6 months of age. Peak production is obtained 5-6 weeks after commencement of lay. A photoperiod of 14 hours is considered optimum for inducing high egg production. Ducks are fed only twice in a day - one in the morning and the other in the evening. The quantity to be fed is that which can be cleared in about 10-15 minutes time. Layer ducks can be fed with mash or pellets. It is preferable to feed wet mash. The feed should have 18% protein and 2650 K cal/kg of ME. The feeder space suggested is 10 cm/duck. Under intensive system a floor space of 3710 to 4650 cm2 per duck is essential, but in cages it can be reduced to 1350 cm2. In semi-intensive system, a floor space of 2790 cm2 in the night shelter and 929 to 1395 cm2 as outside run per bird would be adequate. Layer ducks must be provided with nest boxes. A nest box measuring 30 cm wide, 45 cm deep and 30 cm high would be sufficient. One nest box for every three layers has to be provided.
Egg laying duck
Feed ration for layer ducks
S.No.
Ingredients
Percent
1
Yellow maize
42.00
2
Rice Polish
20.00
3
Gingelly Oil cake
7.00
4
Soyabean meal
14.00
5
Dried fish
10.00
6
Oyster shell
5.00
7
Mineral Mixture
1.75
8
Salt
0.25
Total
100.00
For every 100 kg, add vitamin mixture (VitaminA 600mg VitaminB2 600mg) and nicotinic acid 5 g.
Management of ducklings
Ducklings may be reared in intensive, semi-intensive or range system. Under intensive system, allow a floor space of 91.5 feet in deep litter and 29.5 feet in cages, up to 16 weeks of age. Under semi-intensive system, a floor space 45.7 feet per bird is allowed in night shelter and 30 to 45.7 feet as outside run area per bird up to the age of 16 weeks. The temperature under the hover should be 30oC for the first few days. The temperature can be reduced by about 3oC for every 2-3 days. During summer, provision of heat for brooding can be stopped when the ducklings are 8-10 days of age whereas during rainy and cold season it may have to be continued for a longer period (2-3 weeks).
ducklings
Ducklings can be brooded using battery brooders as well. Though multi-tier battery brooders can be used single tier battery brooders are easier to manage. Ducklings can be fed with a mash containing 20% protein and 2750 kcal/kg ME up to 3 weeks of age and a mash containing 18% protein and 2750 kcal/kg of ME from 4 th to 8 th week of age. The feed or feed ingredients should be free of mould/fungal growth and aflatoxin.
Growing Ducks
(Source: www.vuatkerala.org)
Housing Ducks do not require elaborate houses. The house should be well ventilated, dry and rat proof. The roof may be of shed type, gable or half round. It may have solid or wire floors. The wire floors are not popular with breeders. Under semi-intensive system the house should have easy access to outside run as the ducks prefer to be outdoors during the day time and even during winter or rains. Generally the proportion of night shelter to outside run is 1/4:3/4. The run should gently slope away from the houses to provide drainage. Normally a continuous water channel of size 50 cm wide and 15-20 cm. deep is constructed at the far end, on both sides, parallel to the night shelter, in the rearing or layer house.
Water Though duck is a water fowl and very fond of water, water for swimming is not essential at any stage of duck farming. However, water in drinkers should be sufficiently deep to allow the immersion of their heads and not themselves. If they cannot do this, their eyes seem to get scaly and crusty and in extreme cases, blindness may follow. In addition, they also like to clean their bills periodically and wash them to clear off the feed. While in meat strains a slight increase in body weight of ducks at seven weeks of age has been noticed (weight advantage of swimming ducks to non-swimming ducks is 0.3%), but for egg laying strains, swimming is a disadvantage.
Feeding Ducks may be grown on dry mash, a combination of dry and wet mash or pellets. Ducks prefer wet mash due to difficulties in swallowing dry mash. The pellet feeding, though slightly costly, has distinct advantages such as saving in amount of feed, minimum wastages, saving in labour, convenience and improvement in sanitary conditions. Ducks are good foragers. The use of range, pond or supplementary green feed, reduces the feed cost.
Feeding
Ducks should never have access to feed without water. During the first eight weeks, birds should always have access to feed, but later on they may be fed twice a day i.e. first in the morning and then late afternoon. Khaki Campbell duck consumes about 12.5 Kg. of feed upto 20 weeks of age. Afterwards the consumption varies from 120 gm and above per bird per day and depending upon the rate of production and availability of greens.
Suggested nutrient requirements for egg and meat type duck
Characteristics
Starter duck
Grower duck
Layer duck
Broiler starter duck
Broiler finisher duck
Moisture, % (Max.)
11.00
11.00
11.00
11.00
11.00
Crude protein, % (Min.)
20.00
16.00
18.00
23.00
20.00
Crude fibre, % (Max.)
7.00
8.00
8.00
6.00
6.00
Acid insoluble ash, % (Max.)
4.00
4.00
4.00
3.00
3.00
Salt, % (Max.)
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.60
0.60
Calcium, % (Min.)
1.00
1.00
3.00
1.20
1.20
Phosphorus (Available), %(Min.)
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.50
Linoleic Acid, % (Min.)
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Lysine, % (Min.)
0.90
0.60
0.65
1.20
1.00
Methionine, % (Min.)
0.30
0.25
0.30
0.50
0.35
Meth.+ cystine, %
0.60
0.50
0.55
0.90
0.70
Metabolizable energy (Kcal/kg) Min.
2600
2500
2600
2800
2900
Minerals and Vitamins
Characteristics
Starter duck
Grower duck
Layer duck
Broiler starter duck
Broiler finisher duck
1. Manganese, mg/kg
90.00
50.00
55.00
90.00
90.00
2. Iodine, mg/kg
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
3. Iron, mg/kg
120.00
90.00
75.00
120.00
120.00
4. Zinc, mg/kg
60.00
50.00
75.00
60.00
60.00
5. Copper, mg/kg
12.00
9.00
9.00
12.00
12.00
6. Vitamin A, IU/kg
6000
6000
6000
6000
6000
7. Vitamin D3, IU/kg
600
600
1200
600
600
8. Thiamin, mg/kg
5.00
3.00
3.00
5.00
5.00
9. Riboflavin, mg/kg
6.00
5.00
5.00
6.00
6.00
10. Pantothenic acid, mg/kg
15.00
15.00
15.00
15.00
15.00
11. Nicotinic acid, mg/kg
70.00
60.00
60.00
70.00
70.00
12. Biotin, mg/kg
0.20
0.15
0.15
0.20
0.20
13. Vitamin B12, mg/kg
0.015
0.10
0.10
0.015
0.015
14. Folic acid, mg/kg
1.00
0.50
0.50
1.00
1.00
15. Choline, mg/kg
1300
900
800
1400
1000
16. Vitamin E, mg/kg
15.00
10.00
10.00
15.00
15.00
17. Vitamin K, mg/kg
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
18. Pyridoxine, mg/kg
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
(Source: www.vuatkerala.org )
Health careDucks are generally hardier than other poultry. In practical duck rearing the diseases of importance are duck plague, pasteurellosis and aflatoxicosis. The only method of prevention of aflatoxicosis is to eliminate the use of feed or feed ingredient having fungal or mould growth. Effective vaccine against duck plague is now available. Duck virus hepatitis is another disease and that could cause heavy mortality of ducklings, when they occur. Some of the diseases that may affect ducks are given below.
Duck PlagueAdult birds are mostly affected by virus disease. It is characterized by vascular damage with tissue hemorrhages and free blood in body cavities. The Lumina of intestine and gizzard are filled with blood. There is no treatment for the disease. The birds can be protected by Duck Plague Vaccine, available in the country, which is given at the age of 8-12 weeks. Duck plague can be prevented by vaccination however, no treatment for these viral diseases is present and secondary infection should be prevented.
Duck Viral Hepatitis It mainly affects ducklings of 2 to 3 weeks of age. It is characterized by an acute course and primarily hepatitis. There is no treatment for the disease. The breeding stock can be immunized by attenuated strain of virus before the commencement of egg production. The day old ducklings can be protected with attenuated virus vaccine. The disease is not stated to be prevalent in India.
Duck Cholera It is an infectious disease, caused by bacterial organism Pasteurella Multocoda in ducks over four weeks of age. There is loss of appetite, high body temperature, thirst, diarrhea and sudden death. Most common lesions are pericarditis, arthritis, petechial and echymotic haemorrhages under the skin (Pink skin), in visceral organs, over the serous surface and intestine (Haemorrhagic enteritis). Liver and spleen are enlarged. Sulpha drugs and vaccination can control the diseases. Vaccinate the birds with duck cholera vaccine, first at the age of 4 weeks and again at 18 weeks. Treatment through Enrocin or 30 ml Sulpha Mezathine (33.1%) in 5liter of drinking water or 30-60 ml of Sulpha Quinoxaline in 5 Ltrs of drinking water for 7 days or Erythromycin or Rabatran Granules or Neodox-forte or Mortin Vet or Workrin or Kayasol. These drugs can be administered under the Veterinarian’s guidelines.
Botulism Food poison is a serious problem in both young and adult ducks. It is caused by ingestion of bacterium that grows on decaying plants. Avoid ducks scavenging on decaying plant material. Treatment through Epsom salt in drinking water which acts as purgative.
Parasites Ducks are resistant to internal parasites. The infestation is prevalent only among those ducks which have access to stagnant water, over-crowded ponds and small streams. The parasites include flukes, tape worms and round worms. These causes decrease of nutrient assimilation by the bird and anaemia due to toxic material excreted by them, destroying the red cells.
The external parasites are an infliction rather than an ailment. These include lice mites, fleas and ticks. These cause irritation and annoyance leading to loss in egg production. They also transmit many disease producing organisms. However, these are not commonly found on water-fowls as in chicken.
Aflatoxicosis It is a condition caused by aflatoxin produced by the mould Aspergillus flavus in the feedstuffs such as groundnut, maize, rice polish and other tropical feeds on storage. Improper drying of grains, rain and humid weather favour the mould growth. Ducks are very susceptible to aflatoxin content in the feed. Out of the four types of aflatoxins commonly found viz, B1, B2, G1 and G2. B1 is the most potent toxin. The minimum toxic dose for ducks is 0.03 ppm or 0.03 mg per kg in feed.
Aflatoxin produces liver lesions and results in death when present in high concentration. Lower doses produce chronic effects such as lethargy, unthriftiness, hepatitis and delayed death. There is no specific treatment for aflatoxicosis. When the source of aflatoxin is removed from the feed, birds make rapid recovery.
Vaccination Schedule for Ducks
S. No
Name of the vaccine
Route
Dose
Age of ducks
1.
Duck Cholera (Pasteurellosis)
SubcutaneousDucklings, Adults
1 ml
3-4 weeks
2.
Duck Plague
SubcutaneousAdults
1 ml
8-12 weeks
( Source: www.vuatkerala.org )

Match Date Team Time Type Venue IPL

Match Date
Team
Time
Type
Venue
3/12/2010
Deccan Chargers vs Kolkata Knight Riders
20:00 (IST)
Match 1
Dr DY Patil Stadium, Mumbai
3/13/2010
Mumbai Indians vs Rajasthan Royals
15:00 (IST)
Match 2
Brabourne Stadium, Mumbai (Bombay)
3/13/2010
Kings XI Punjab vs Delhi Daredevils
20:00 (IST)
Match 3
Punjab Cricket Association Stadium, Mohali – Chandigarh
3/14/2010
Kolkata Knight Riders vs Royal Challengers Bangalore
16:00 (IST)
Match 4
Eden Gardens, Kolkata (Calcutta)
3/14/2010
Chennai Super Kings vs Deccan Chargers
20:00 (IST)
Match 5
MA Chidambaram Stadium (Chepauk), Chennai (Madras)
3/15/2010
Rajasthan Royals vs Delhi Daredevils
20:00 (IST)
Match 6
Sardar Patel Gujarat Stadium, Motera – Ahmedabad
3/16/2010
Royal Challengers Bangalore vs Kings XI Punjab
16:00 (IST)
Match 7
M. Chinnaswamy Stadium, Bangalore – Karnataka
3/16/2010
Kolkata Knight Riders vs Chennai Super Kings
20:00 (IST)
Match 8
Eden Gardens, Kolkata (Calcutta)
3/17/2010
Delhi Daredevils vs Mumbai Indians
20:00 (IST)
Match 9
Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi
3/18/2010
Royal Challengers Bangalore vs Rajasthan Royals
20:00 (IST)
Match 10
M. Chinnaswamy Stadium, Bangalore – Karnataka
3/19/2010
Delhi Daredevils vs Chennai Super Kings
16:00 (IST)
Match 11
Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi
3/19/2010
Deccan Chargers vs Kings XI Punjab
20:00 (IST)
Match 12
ACA-VDCA Stadium, Visakhapatnam
3/20/2010
Rajasthan Royals vs Kolkata Knight Riders
16:00 (IST)
Match 13
Sardar Patel Gujarat Stadium, Motera – Ahmedabad
3/20/2010
Mumbai Indians vs Royal Challengers Bangalore
20:00 (IST)
Match 14
Brabourne Stadium, Mumbai (Bombay)
3/21/2010
Deccan Chargers vs Delhi Daredevils
16:00 (IST)
Match 15
ACA-VDCA Stadium, Visakhapatnam
3/21/2010
Chennai Super Kings vs Kings XI Punjab
20:00 (IST)
Match 16
MA Chidambaram Stadium (Chepauk), Chennai (Madras)
3/22/2010
Mumbai Indians vs Kolkata Knight Riders
20:00 (IST)
Match 17
Brabourne Stadium, Mumbai (Bombay)
3/23/2010
Royal Challengers Bangalore vs Chennai Super Kings
20:00 (IST)
Match 18
M. Chinnaswamy Stadium, Bangalore – Karnataka
3/24/2010
Kings XI Punjab vs Rajasthan Royals
20:00 (IST)
Match 19
Punjab Cricket Association Stadium, Mohali – Chandigarh
3/25/2010
Mumbai Indians vs Chennai Super Kings
20:00 (IST)
Match 20
Brabourne Stadium, Mumbai (Bombay)
3/26/2010
Rajasthan Royals vs Deccan Chargers
20:00 (IST)
Match 21
Sardar Patel Gujarat Stadium, Motera – Ahmedabad
3/27/2010
Kings XI Punjab vs Kolkata Knight Riders
16:00 (IST)
Match 22
Punjab Cricket Association Stadium, Mohali – Chandigarh
3/27/2010
Royal Challengers Bangalore vs Delhi Daredevils
20:00 (IST)
Match 23
M. Chinnaswamy Stadium, Bangalore – Karnataka
3/28/2010
Rajasthan Royals vs Chennai Super Kings
16:00 (IST)
Match 24
Sardar Patel Gujarat Stadium, Motera – Ahmedabad
3/28/2010
Deccan Chargers vs Mumbai Indians
20:00 (IST)
Match 25
Rajiv Gandhi International Stadium, Hyderabad
3/29/2010
Delhi Daredevils vs Kolkata Knight Riders
20:00 (IST)
Match 26
Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi
3/30/2010
Mumbai Indians vs Kings XI Punjab
20:00 (IST)
Match 27
Brabourne Stadium, Mumbai (Bombay)
3/31/2010
Chennai Super Kings vs Royal Challengers Bangalore
16:00 (IST)
Match 28
MA Chidambaram Stadium (Chepauk), Chennai (Madras)
3/31/2010
Delhi Daredevils vs Rajasthan Royals
20:00 (IST)
Match 29
Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi
4/1/2010
Kolkata Knight Riders vs Deccan Chargers
20:00 (IST)
Match 30
Eden Gardens, Kolkata (Calcutta)
4/2/2010
Kings XI Punjab vs Royal Challengers Bangalore
20:00 (IST)
Match 31
Punjab Cricket Association Stadium, Mohali – Chandigarh
4/3/2010
Chennai Super Kings vs Rajasthan Royals
16:00 (IST)
Match 32
MA Chidambaram Stadium (Chepauk), Chennai (Madras)
4/3/2010
Mumbai Indians vs Deccan Chargers
20:00 (IST)
Match 33
Vidarbha Cricket Association Ground, Nagpur
4/4/2010
Kolkata Knight Riders vs Kings XI Punjab
16:00 (IST)
Match 34
Eden Gardens, Kolkata (Calcutta)
4/4/2010
Delhi Daredevils vs Royal Challengers Bangalore
20:00 (IST)
Match 35
Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi
4/5/2010
Deccan Chargers vs Rajasthan Royals
20:00 (IST)
Match 36
Rajiv Gandhi International Stadium, Hyderabad
4/6/2010
Chennai Super Kings vs Mumbai Indians
20:00 (IST)
Match 37
MA Chidambaram Stadium (Chepauk), Chennai (Madras)
4/7/2010
Rajasthan Royals vs Kings XI Punjab
16:00 (IST)
Match 38
Sardar Patel Gujarat Stadium, Motera – Ahmedabad
4/7/2010
Kolkata Knight Riders vs Delhi Daredevils
20:00 (IST)
Match 39
Eden Gardens, Kolkata (Calcutta)
4/8/2010
Royal Challengers Bangalore vs Deccan Chargers
20:00 (IST)
Match 40
M. Chinnaswamy Stadium, Bangalore – Karnataka
4/9/2010
Kings XI Punjab vs Mumbai Indians
20:00 (IST)
Match 41
Punjab Cricket Association Stadium, Mohali – Chandigarh
4/10/2010
Deccan Chargers vs Chennai Super Kings
16:00 (IST)
Match 42
Rajiv Gandhi International Stadium, Hyderabad
4/10/2010
Royal Challengers Bangalore vs Kolkata Knight Riders
20:00 (IST)
Match 43
M. Chinnaswamy Stadium, Bangalore – Karnataka
4/11/2010
Delhi Daredevils vs Kings XI Punjab
16:00 (IST)
Match 44
Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi
4/11/2010
Rajasthan Royals vs Mumbai Indians
20:00 (IST)
Match 45
Sardar Patel Gujarat Stadium, Motera – Ahmedabad
4/12/2010
Deccan Chargers vs Royal Challengers Bangalore
20:00 (IST)
Match 46
Rajiv Gandhi International Stadium, Hyderabad
4/13/2010
Mumbai Indians vs Delhi Daredevils
16:00 (IST)
Match 47
Vidarbha Cricket Association Ground, Nagpur
4/13/2010
Chennai Super Kings vs Kolkata Knight Riders
20:00 (IST)
Match 48
MA Chidambaram Stadium (Chepauk), Chennai (Madras)
4/14/2010
Rajasthan Royals vs Royal Challengers Bangalore
20:00 (IST)
Match 49
Sardar Patel Gujarat Stadium, Motera – Ahmedabad
4/15/2010
Chennai Super Kings vs Delhi Daredevils
20:00 (IST)
Match 50
MA Chidambaram Stadium (Chepauk), Chennai (Madras)
4/16/2010
Kings XI Punjab vs Deccan Chargers
20:00 (IST)
Match 51
Himachal Pradesh Cricket Association Stadium, Dharamsala
4/17/2010
Royal Challengers Bangalore vs Mumbai Indians
16:00 (IST)
Match 52
M. Chinnaswamy Stadium, Bangalore – Karnataka
4/17/2010
Kolkata Knight Riders vs Rajasthan Royals
20:00 (IST)
Match 53
Eden Gardens, Kolkata (Calcutta)
4/18/2010
Kings XI Punjab vs Chennai Super Kings
16:00 (IST)
Match 54
Himachal Pradesh Cricket Association Stadium, Dharamsala
4/18/2010
Delhi Daredevils vs Deccan Chargers
20:00 (IST)
Match 55
Feroz Shah Kotla, Delhi
4/19/2010
Kolkata Knight Riders vs Mumbai Indians
20:00 (IST)
Match 56
Eden Gardens, Kolkata (Calcutta)
4/21/2010
T.B.C. vs T.B.C.
20:00 (IST)
1st Semi Final
M. Chinnaswamy Stadium, Bangalore – Karnataka
4/22/2010
T.B.C. vs T.B.C.
20:00 (IST)
2nd Semi Final
M. Chinnaswamy Stadium, Bangalore – Karnataka
4/24/2010
T.B.C. vs T.B.C.
20:00 (IST)
3/4 place playoff
Dr DY Patil Stadium, Mumbai
4/25/2010
T.B.C. vs T.B.C.
20:00 (IST)
Final
Dr DY Patil Stadium, Mumbai

WIND EROSION EQUATION (WEQ

WIND EROSION EQUATION (WEQ)
Guidance Document
USE OF MICROSOFT EXCEL SPREADSHEET MODEL


· Purpose - This guidance document will give the basic instructions to use the Wind Erosion Equation (WEQ) Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, computer version, developed by Keep, Sporcic and Nelson. Users will need, as a minimum, a 486 computer; Windows, 95, 98, NT or XP; MS Excel version 7.0 or more recent; 64 meg of RAM or more; a copy of this document; and the WEQ EXCEL Spreadsheet model from the web site below:

· WEQ Data Hyperlinks

WEQ EXCEL Spreadsheet model
http://www.nm.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/TechNotes/agro/ag55.xls

Guidance Document for WEQ EXCEL Spreadsheet Model
http://www.weru.ksu.edu/nrcs/weqguidance.doc
or http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/ecs/agronomy

Access to the National Agronomy Manual: http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/ecs/agronomy.

Wind Parameters for WEQ (Prevailing wind direction; Preponderance: and Erosive Wind Energy (EWE): http://www.weru.ksu.edu/nrcs/

WEQ Wind Parameters by Region and States in EXCEL Format; Populated and maintained by Lorenz Sutherland, La Junta, CO: See instructions in text below.
http://www.weru.ksu.edu/nrcs/

WEQ “E” tables for each combination of C & I factors are on the www browser: http://www.weru.ksu.edu/nrcs
Click on the hypertext for: etable.doc (for MS Word) and etable.wpd (for Word Perfect).

Random Roughness Photos: http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/ECS/agronomy/roughness.html or:
http://www.weru.ksu.edu/nrcs
These photographs are also available in printable format on this site.

C-Factor Map (Electronic):
http://data4.ftw.nrcs.usda.gov/website/



· General – The WEQ management period method EXCEL spreadsheet can be used in states that use the management period method to estimate wind erosion.

To use the spreadsheet model, the user will need to have a good understanding of Part 502 of the National Agronomy Manual (NAM). Also, planners will need to have a basic understanding of the wind erosion equation (WEQ), understand irrigation (where the land is irrigated), and have basic EXCEL spreadsheet skills.

The State Agronomist or Erosion Prediction Specialist will need to set up the wind climate data, crop data and operation (tillage) files (for many states, these have already been populated). Cropping systems developed with the model (WEQ Input Worksheet) can be saved to a file and used as templates for future planning. The light yellow shaded areas are the only “user” data required to run the program. The worksheet is “protected”. This is not because the user is not trustworthy; it is because some of the data should only be changed state wide, and if a formula is lost it can be very difficult to replace.

Saving and using Templates –Cropping systems that are newly developed on the Res Wks can be saved as templates. To do so, save the first six columns of data to an empty (new) workbook. Start by highlighting and COPYING all the cropping system in the light yellow shaded area, beginning with the second row under the Crop and Management Records part of the WEQ Input Worksheet. Open a new workbook and paste this system on a blank sheet. Name this new template workbook, as well as the tab, and now the workbook can also be used to file additional cropping system templates under other tabs. Templates can then be copied from the template workbook sheet and be pasted back into the WEQ Input Worksheet.

· Irrigated Circles - Many center pivot irrigated fields are planted in a circular pattern. To estimate wind erosion on fields planted and/or tilled in a circular pattern, two estimates need to be made. The first estimate should be made after selecting a NS tillage direction and the second should be an EW tillage direction. The average of the two estimates is the correct soil loss value.

· Definitions - The first sheet in the spreadsheet (Instr) has most of the column headings defined and an explanation of the information required for the spreadsheet to run. Please print a blank worksheet (Res Wks tab at the bottom) and the calculation sheet (Calc) before reading and following the Instr sheet. Remember only the shaded cells need data input by the user. Please read the Instr sheet before starting.

· Circular Reference Bug - There is a circular reference bug in the sheet. As you enter data for the first time you will find an error caution coming up and telling you there is a circular formula error in the sheet. DO NOT PANIC. Just close the warning box when it pops up and continue to add the data needed for the run. The error warning will stop when the first harvest is entered.

· Climate database – The WEQ EXCEL Spreadsheet Model requires monthly values of three wind related climate parameters for a given location. These parameter values, found in the “Climate” spreadsheet (tab) of the WEQv8.01 Excel workbook, are (1) prevailing wind erosion direction, (2) preponderance, and (3) wind energy. The wind energy is expressed as the annual cumulative amount on a monthly basis. There are two options for loading the appropriate wind parameters into the WEQ EXCEL Spreadsheet Model. Also there is a limit to the number of climate stations that can be included. Therefore, it is suggested that only data needed in the state where the sheet is used and the adjacent states are added to the State climate database.

q Option #1.

In addition to the WEQ Model Excel workbook, there are four other Excel workbook files that contain the climate parameters for each of the participating regions. These files, which will be provided before and during the training, contain the required wind parameters to run the WEQ EXCEL Spreadsheet Model. The files can be accessed and downloaded from the national WEQ web site. The wind parameter data is aggregated by region. For example the file named EXCEL-WEQ Climate DB_West.xls contains the wind parameter data for each state in the West USDA-NRCS Region.

Persons authorized to load, change, or add to the Climate database will open the WEQ Model Excel workbook, click on the Climate tab, and unprotect the worksheet. If there is existing data not needed by your state, then highlight only the data not needed, including the location names; right click the mouse and select ‘clear contents’. Open the region *.xls file and click on the tab for your state (i.e. Nevada). Select (highlight) the location names and data, then copy and paste to the Climate tab of the WEQ Model Excel workbook. When the task is complete, the sheet must be protected and workbook saved.

q Option #2.

The wind parameter data can also be manually loaded by entering the data from Exhibit 502-7a in the National Agronomy Manual. The table is located at the following web location: http://www.weru.ksu.edu/nrcs/windparm/windparm.pdf

To copy the needed data from the above file, open the WEQ Model file and the windparm.pdf file mentioned above. Locate the windparm data for your state and manually copy this data to the bottom of the climate sheet in the WEQ model. Be sure to get all the data columns. Next locate and highlight all other state’s data that you do not need, and hit the delete key. Once the needed climate locations have been added, and the unwanted states have been removed, sort the entire table on the first column (B). This will take out all the blank rows and size it down to read the needed locations. When the task is complete, the sheet must be protected and workbook saved.

· Adding to the Crops database – When adding a new crop to the Crops database, two types of data are needed, Residue data and Green Growth data. Residue data is entered on one line, and green growth data is entered by 15 day growth intervals. The first growth period must be adjusted for emergence. If it takes 10 days to emerge then there will be only 5 days of growth the first period. The growth periods express an average dry matter (lbs/ac) accumulation for the period. The growth periods can be extended as long as additional dry matter is added to the crop. Residue is expressed as dry matter (lbs/ac) left above ground after the harvest operation.

Persons authorized to change or add to the Crops database will click on the Crop tab and unprotect the sheet, enter data as instructed below, sort the data table, and protect the sheet again so that data will not be accidentally lost. Passwording the sheet is required. Data entered in this table must be similar to surrounding states.

Residue data needed is: an estimated yield, the unit wt. per acre, the residue in lbs/ac at harvest, the residue/unit wt. (lbs/ac divided by the unit wt), the cover residue table (either Corn, S Grain, or Cotton), and the flat small grain equivalent chart to be used (See Exhibit 502-10 pg 502-61 of the NAM). Green growth data needed is: a growth curve table, which is dry matter (lbs/ac) accumulative by 15 day intervals, the flat small grain equivalent chart to be used (See Exhibit 502-10 pg 502-61 of the NAM), the green growth equation for the selected chart representing rows “perpendicular” to the prevailing wind and the green grow equation for the selected chart for represented rows “parallel” to the prevailing wind. Much of the green growth data and residue data has been developed by individual States. Green growth table names are tied to regressed curve equations and can be copied to new cells (crops) as needed.

The crop name, without a number following the name, is used to call in residue values. The crop name, with numbers after the name, is used to call in green growth values. Example: a line with the name Corn, grain is a line of residue values, a line with the name Corn 15 indicates this is the first 15 day green growth period for corn.


· Adding to the Operations database- Residue reducing tillage operations vary by speed, soil type, depth, spacing, amount of residue present, type of residue (fragile or non-fragile), and soil moisture. It is not assumed that the listed operations will reflect all the situations where this model will be used. There are four parameters needed for each operation, % residue remaining (mass), random roughness (RR) created by the operation, ridge height created (inches), and ridge spacing (inches). The N and F listed in the name indicates Non-fragile or Fragile residue. In the old NAM, 2nd edition, Amendment 5, 1993, Part 503 subpart E pages 503-13 and 503-14, tables 1 and 2 list the N and F crops.

If it is necessary to add or change the operations table, authorized persons may change or add to the Operations in the database. The new operations data will be added to the bottom of the worksheet. Do not change the names of the brown colored operations since they are used in formulas and if changed, will cause the sheet to give incorrect answers. Start the by clicking on the “Oper” tab at the bottom of the workbook. Click tools, and unprotect to unlock the sheet to add or change the data. Enter or change the data as needed and protect and password as instructed above.

Step by Step

This is a step by step process to show how to use the program. Start the step by step process after reading the Instr sheet (the tab at the bottom of the WEQ Excel spreadsheet).

Step 1 - Fill in the Producer, Planner, Crop Rotation, Location (Farm number or Sec., Town., Range), Tract, and Field boxes.

Step 2 - Use the drop down menu to select the Climate Data Station. When the climate data station is selected, the model automatically pulls the data from the Climate sheet (see the tab at the bottom of the worksheet).

Step 3 - Enter the Field Width in feet (short side of field), Tillage Direct. (EW or NS, drop down), Length/Width Ratio (drop down), Field Direction (EW or NS, drop down), and Adjusted Soil “I”, which is the assigned I value for the soil texture plus the adjustment for knolls (drop down). Fill in the C Value (in whole numbers. Divide the isobar interval only once from the C factor map). Insert yes or no for Irrigation (Y/N, drop down). When Irrigation is checked yes, this automatically places the I factor into the next less wind erodible soil group. Therefore when you have an I value based on sieving and want to take credit for irrigation induced non-erodible wet days, you need to change your “adjusted sieved I” by one higher wind erodibility group before checking yes in the irrigation block.

Step 4 - Determine the Wind Erodibility Group (WEG) from the FOTG soil survey, and fill in the number (1-7 or 4L, drop down).

Step 5 - Place 1/1/xxxx on the first line of worksheet (same line as “Start Rotation”). In the first column of line 13, put in the date 1/2/xxxx. Next place the cursor in the Crop column next to the date, left click in the box to activate the pull down and select the previous crop harvested (select from the list). Move to the Operation column. Start the first management period with an Over winter loss operation. In cell C13, click the pull-down and select the Over winter loss, fragile (F) or non-fragile (N) operation (see NAM Part 503 Subpart E, table 1 & 2, for definition), repeat these steps with correct dates until all tillage operations, planting operations, and harvests are completed. As you select the planting operation change the crop to the new crop being planted.

Step 6 - The next date after planting will be the end of the first 15-day growth period. The date can be entered as a formula. In the blank date column A, type =, then point and click on the cell just above and type +15, then hit the return key. This will enter a formula that tells the computer, to type the date above and add 15 days. All growth periods are 15 days except winter wheat or other winter crops, which have a 60-day growth period over winter (see the Crop table for details). The 15-day date formula can be copied down for the number of growth periods for the crop planted. Next, in the Crop column click and select the growing crop name with a number (15 to 75 days after planting) next to it. Continue to select down the column a series of growth periods.

Example of a 2nd way to enter crop during growth: Bean 15, Bean 30, Bean 45, Bean 60, and Bean 75 can be copied and moved at the same time to the Crop Name column of the Res Wks. This must be done using the paste special function. Select the Crop Tab and find the correct series of grow names, highlight them and copy them. Change back to the Res Wks sheet, place the cursor in the first cell under Crop (column B) where crop growth begins, right click and click on paste special, then select the radio button for values under the paste section, and click OK.

In the Operation column enter (click and select) “Grow” for all the growth periods. “Grow” can be pasted in the first cell for “Grow” and then copied down the sheet (Res Wks) as needed. All growth series of data can be copy from the tables in groups and paste special used to paste only the values to the Res Wks. If you copy and paste normal you will lose the formatting in the cells.

Step 7 - Enter the Harvest date, the harvested crop name (without a number extension), and the word “Harvest” for above ground crops or “Harvest, root crop” for root crops, in the operation column.

Step 8 - Enter the date of any post harvest tillage, crop name, of the crop just harvested, and the name of the operation. Repeat step 5, 6, 7, and 8 for any additional crops in the rotation. 100 management periods can be used in each calculation. If more are needed try removing lines where there is no erosion. An example would be to reduce the number of operations of “Grow” to just what is needed to take erosion to zero for the rest of crop growth period.

Step 9 - End the run with a 12/31/xxxx date, last harvested crop name, and the End Rotation operation.

Step 10 - Enter the number of irrigations for the periods listed. (This is NOT the cumulative number of irrigations or “Irrigation Days”).

Step 11 – In the Flat Res. column on each line of the run enter 0 when residue is 100% standing (no flat residue), and 100 when all the residue is flat (as in heavy inversion tillage). Example, if 60% of the residue is standing after a tillage, then enter 40 or 0.4 and hit the return key. The number will be in percent.

Step 12 - Finally, adjust any yield values that are different than the default yields in column G-H. You can change the yield by 50% up or down by using the drop down in the Yield Adjustment column (F).

Example

· Iam Windy farms, tract 123 on an irrigated circle (field 1) of continuous grain corn, where the soil has an I of 56. The circle field has a diameter of 2640 ft, and is near Clovis, NM. The C is 100. The grower tills and/or plants approximately perpendicular to the damaging winds from the west during the spring critical period. The field is farmed north and south. Iam plants corn on 4/15 and harvests 10/15. The stalks are disked with an offset disk and packer on 11/1. In the spring the field is disked and packed again on 3/15. On 4/1 the circle is moldboard plowed, conventionally, and packed. Then, on 4/10 a seedbed maker is used to set up the field for the corn planter. The corn is cultivated on 5/15. His average yield has been 200 bushels/acre.

Step 1 - Fill in: Iam Windy, MAS, Corn, grain, Sec 10 T80 R45, tract 123, and field 1 on the WEQ Input Worksheet.

Step 2 - Select the climate data station of Clovis, NM from the pull down list.

Step 3 - Put 2640 feet in the field width box, NS for tillage direction, length width ratio is 1.0, field direction is EW, the Adjusted soil I factor is 56 (keep in mind that the selection of yes in the irrigation box automatically adjusts the I factor value by one favorable group), put 100 in the Site “C” Value box, and Irrigation is Y (yes).

Step 4 - WEG is 5.

Step 5 - Enter 1/1/2000 in the first line (cell A12) of the table. Enter 1/2/2000 in the second line (cell A 13) and select (cell B13), enter Corn, grain, high yield from the Crop table drop-down list and select Over winter loss N for the operation . Enter the first tillage on 3/15/2000, copy Corn, grain, high yield from the cell above, select Disk, offset, heavy N from the Oper drop down list. Do the same for the Packer, roller on the same date. Enter 4/1/2000 and put in the Plow, moldboard, conventional and Packer, roller. Enter 4/10/2000 and copy Corn, grain, high yield. There is no seedbed maker operation, but a Chisel-disk-harrow-packer (comb) N is close, so use it. Enter 4/15/2000, Corn, grain, high yield and Planter, DD opener, 30 in sp N.

Step 6 - Copy the 4/15 date and add 15 days to the formula. Copy or select Corn, grain 15 through Corn, grain 75 from the Crop table and “paste special” in the crop column. Type or select Grow in the Operation column and copy down to match the Crop column. Copy down the Operation Date column to match the growth cells. Note that there is a cultivation on the second growth date. Copy the six columns and four rows of data from 5/15 down one line to add the cultivation. On the second 5/15 date, which is the second Corn, grain 30 line, copy and paste the Cultivator, rowcrop, 3 in ridge operation in the Operation column.

Step 7 - Enter the harvest date 10/15/2000, copy down the crop Corn, grain, high yield and type or select the word Harvest.

Step 8 - Add the post harvest tillage on 11/1/2000, which is a Disk, offset, heavy N and then a Packer, roller. Copy both tillage operations from the cells above.

Step 9 - End the rotation year by entering 12/31/2000, copy Corn, grain, high yield and copy or select the End Rotation operation.

Step 10 - Estimate the number of irrigations needed for each growth period or use Iam’s records for each period. The number of Irrigations is determined by the number of times that irrigation water will wet the soil surface in a given management period. The attached example may have too many irrigations in some management periods.

Step 11 - Go down the Flat Res column and estimate the percent flat residue. Start with the Harvest Operation. Estimate about 50% of the residue is flat after harvest and 100% is flat after the fall tillage. Enter 50 in the flat Res column after harvest, and 100 in the management period for fall packing. Note only the 1st period after harvest has standing residue.

Step 12 – Select .5 on the drop down in column F, Yield Adjustment. This increases the 135 bu/ac to 200 bu/ac.

See the attached example: (Res Wks sheet and Calc sheet).

Meiosis Study Guide

Meiosis Study Guide
· Overview
· Stages of Meiosis
· Meiosis Diagrams
· Glossary of Terms
· Quiz
Before a dividing cell enters meiosis, it undergoes a period of growth called interphase.Interphase:
· G1 phase: The period prior to the synthesis of DNA. In this phase, the cell increases in mass in preparation for cell division. Note that the G in G1 represents gap and the 1 represents first, so the G1 phase is the first gap phase.
· S phase: The period during which DNA is synthesized. In most cells, there is a narrow window of time during which DNA is synthesized. Note that the S represents synthesis.
· G2 phase: The period after DNA synthesis has occurred but prior to the start of prophase. The cell synthesizes proteins and continues to increase in size. Note that the G in G2 represents gap and the 2 represents second, so the G2 phase is the second gap phase.
· In the latter part of interphase, the cell still has nucleoli present.
· The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope and the cell's chromosomes have duplicated but are in the form of chromatin.
· In animal cells, two pair of centrioles formed from the replication of one pair are located outside of the nucleus.
Sexual reproduction occurs only in eukaryotes. During the formation of gametes, the number of chromosomes is reduced by half, and returned to the full amount when the two gametes fuse during fertilization.
Ploidy Back to Top
Haploid and diploid are terms referring to the number of sets of chromosomes in a cell. Gregor Mendel determined his peas had two sets of alleles, one from each parent. Diploid organisms are those with two (di) sets. Human beings (except for their gametes), most animals and many plants are diploid. We abbreviate diploid as 2n. Ploidy is a term referring to the number of sets of chromosomes. Haploid organisms/cells have only one set of chromosomes, abbreviated as n. Organisms with more than two sets of chromosomes are termed polyploid. Chromosomes that carry the same genes are termed homologous chromosomes. The alleles on homologous chromosomes may differ, as in the case of heterozygous individuals. Organisms (normally) receive one set of homologous chromosomes from each parent.
Meiosis is a special type of nuclear division which segregates one copy of each homologous chromosome into each new "gamete". Mitosis maintains the cell's original ploidy level (for example, one diploid 2n cell producing two diploid 2n cells; one haploid n cell producing two haploid n cells; etc.). Meiosis, on the other hand, reduces the number of sets of chromosomes by half, so that when gametic recombination (fertilization) occurs the ploidy of the parents will be reestablished.
Most cells in the human body are produced by mitosis. These are the somatic (or vegetative) line cells. Cells that become gametes are referred to as germ line cells. The vast majority of cell divisions in the human body are mitotic, with meiosis being restricted to the gonads.
Life Cycles Back to Top
Life cycles are a diagrammatic representation of the events in the organism's development and reproduction. When interpreting life cycles, pay close attention to the ploidy level of particular parts of the cycle and where in the life cycle meiosis occurs. For example, animal life cycles have a dominant diploid phase, with the gametic (haploid) phase being a relative few cells. Most of the cells in your body are diploid, germ line diploid cells will undergo meiosis to produce gametes, with fertilization closely following meiosis.
Plant life cycles have two sequential phases that are termed alternation of generations. The sporophyte phase is "diploid", and is that part of the life cycle in which meiosis occurs. However, many plant species are thought to arise by polyploidy, and the use of "diploid" in the last sentence was meant to indicate that the greater number of chromosome sets occur in this phase. The gametophyte phase is "haploid", and is the part of the life cycle in which gametes are produced (by mitosis of haploid cells). In flowering plants (angiosperms) the multicelled visible plant (leaf, stem, etc.) is sporophyte, while pollen and ovaries contain the male and female gametophytes, respectively. Plant life cycles differ from animal ones by adding a phase (the haploid gametophyte) after meiosis and before the production of gametes.
Many protists and fungi have a haploid dominated life cycle. The dominant phase is haploid, while the diploid phase is only a few cells (often only the single celled zygote, as in Chlamydomonas ). Many protists reproduce by mitosis until their environment deteriorates, then they undergo sexual reproduction to produce a resting zygotic cyst.
Phases of Meiosis Back to Top
Two successive nuclear divisions occur, Meiosis I (Reduction) and Meiosis II (Division). Meiosis produces 4 haploid cells. Mitosis produces 2 diploid cells. The old name for meiosis was reduction/ division. Meiosis I reduces the ploidy level from 2n to n (reduction) while Meiosis II divides the remaining set of chromosomes in a mitosis-like process (division). Most of the differences between the processes occur during Meiosis I.
The above image is from http://www.biology.uc.edu/vgenetic/meiosis/
Prophase I Back to Top
Prophase I has a unique event -- the pairing (by an as yet undiscovered mechanism) of homologous chromosomes. Synapsis is the process of linking of the replicated homologous chromosomes. The resulting chromosome is termed a tetrad, being composed of two chromatids from each chromosome, forming a thick (4-strand) structure. Crossing-over may occur at this point. During crossing-over chromatids break and may be reattached to a different homologous chromosome.
The alleles on this tetrad:
A B C D E F G
A B C D E F G
a b c d e f g
a b c d e f g
will produce the following chromosomes if there is a crossing-over event between the 2nd and 3rd chromosomes from the top:
A B C D E F G
A B c d e f g
a b C D E F G
a b c d e f g
Thus, instead of producing only two types of chromosome (all capital or all lower case), four different chromosomes are produced. This doubles the variability of gamete genotypes. The occurrence of a crossing-over is indicated by a special structure, a chiasma (plural chiasmata) since the recombined inner alleles will align more with others of the same type (e.g. a with a, B with B). Near the end of Prophase I, the homologous chromosomes begin to separate slightly, although they remain attached at chiasmata.
Crossing-over between homologous chromosomes produces chromosomes with new associations of genes and alleles. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Events of Prophase I (save for synapsis and crossing over) are similar to those in Prophase of mitosis: chromatin condenses into chromosomes, the nucleolus dissolves, nuclear membrane is disassembled, and the spindle apparatus forms.
Major events in Prophase I. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Metaphase I Back to Top
Metaphase I is when tetrads line-up along the equator of the spindle. Spindle fibers attach to the centromere region of each homologous chromosome pair. Other metaphase events as in mitosis.
Anaphase I Back to Top
Anaphase I is when the tetrads separate, and are drawn to opposite poles by the spindle fibers. The centromeres in Anaphase I remain intact.
Events in prophase and metaphse I. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Telophase I Back to Top
Telophase I is similar to Telophase of mitosis, except that only one set of (replicated) chromosomes is in each "cell". Depending on species, new nuclear envelopes may or may not form. Some animal cells may have division of the centrioles during this phase.
The events of Telophase I. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Prophase II Back to Top
During Prophase II, nuclear envelopes (if they formed during Telophase I) dissolve, and spindle fibers reform. All else is as in Prophase of mitosis. Indeed Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis.
The events of Prophase II. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Metaphase II Back to Top
Metaphase II is similar to mitosis, with spindles moving chromosomes into equatorial area and attaching to the opposite sides of the centromeres in the kinetochore region.
Anaphase II Back to Top
During Anaphase II, the centromeres split and the former chromatids (now chromosomes) are segregated into opposite sides of the cell.
The events of Metaphase II and Anaphase II. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Telophase II Back to Top
Telophase II is identical to Telophase of mitosis. Cytokinesis separates the cells.
The events of Telophase II. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis Back to Top
Mitosis maintains ploidy level, while meiosis reduces it. Meiosis may be considered a reduction phase followed by a slightly altered mitosis. Meiosis occurs in a relative few cells of a multicellular organism, while mitosis is more common.
Comparison of the events in Mitosis and Meiosis. Images from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Gametogenesis Back to Top
Gametogenesis is the process of forming gametes (by definition haploid, n) from diploid cells of the germ line. Spermatogenesis is the process of forming sperm cells by meiosis (in animals, by mitosis in plants) in specialized organs known as gonads (in males these are termed testes). After division the cells undergo differentiation to become sperm cells. Oogenesis is the process of forming an ovum (egg) by meiosis (in animals, by mitosis in the gametophyte in plants) in specialized gonads known as ovaries. Whereas in spermatogenesis all 4 meiotic products develop into gametes, oogenesis places most of the cytoplasm into the large egg. The other cells, the polar bodies, do not develop. This all the cytoplasm and organelles go into the egg. Human males produce 200,000,000 sperm per day, while the female produces one egg (usually) each menstrual cycle.
Gametogenesis. Images from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer Associates (www.sinauer.com) and WH Freeman (www.whfreeman.com), used with permission.
Spermatogenesis
Sperm production begins at puberty at continues throughout life, with several hundred million sperm being produced each day. Once sperm form they move into the epididymis, where they mature and are stored.
Human Sperm (SEM x5,785). This image is copyright Dennis Kunkel at www.DennisKunkel.com, used with permission.
Oogenesis
The ovary contains many follicles composed of a developing egg surrounded by an outer layer of follicle cells. Each egg begins oogenesis as a primary oocyte. At birth each female carries a lifetime supply of developing oocytes, each of which is in Prophase I. A developing egg (secondary oocyte) is released each month from puberty until menopause, a total of 400-500 eggs.
Oogenesis. The above image is from http://www.grad.ttuhsc.edu/courses/histo/notes/female.html.
Links Back to Top
Access Excellence page on Mitosis
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Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
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The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) was originally created at the initiative of the Rockefeller Foundation, which had sponsored international meetings of agronomists at its Bellagio Conference Center in Lake Como, Italy, from 1968 onwards.
In 1970, foundation officials proposed a worldwide network of agricultural research centers under a permanent secretariat. This was further supported and developed by the World Bank; on May 19, 1971, with the FAO, IFAD and UNDP as co-sponsors, the CGIAR was established. By 1983 there were thirteen research centers around the world under its umbrella.[1] CGIAR now has 64 governmental and nongovernmental members and 15 research centres.
At the time of its establishment there was widespread concern that developing countries would succumb to famine; the successes of the Green Revolution had started in Asia and the Pearson Commission on International Development had urged that the international community undertake "intensive international effort" to support "research specializing in food supplies and tropical agriculture". CGIAR was formed for the coordination of international agricultural research with the goals of poverty reduction and achieving food security in developing countries through agricultural research.

Active CGIAR Centres
Headquarters location
International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT)
Cali, Colombia
Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)
Bogor, Indonesia
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT)
El Batán, Mexico State, Mexico
International Potato Center (CIP)
Lima, Peru
International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA)
Aleppo, Syria
WorldFish Center (International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, ICLARM)
Penang, Malaysia
World Agroforestry Centre (International Centre for Research in Agroforestry, ICRAF)
Nairobi, Kenya
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT)
Hyderabad, India
International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)
Washington, D.C., United States
International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
Battaramulla, Sri Lanka
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA)
Ibadan, Nigeria
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)
Nairobi, Kenya
Bioversity International
Maccarese, Rome, Italy
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI)
Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
Africa Rice Center (West Africa Rice Development Association, WARDA)
Bouaké, Côte d'Ivoire / Cotonou, Benin

Defunct CGIAR Centres
Headquarters
Change
International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA)
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
1994: merged with ILRAD to become ILRI
International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases (ILRAD)
Nairobi, Kenya
1994: merged with ILCA to become ILRI
International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain (INIBAP)
Montpellier, France
1994: became a programme of Bioversity International
International Service for National Agricultural Research (ISNAR)
The Hague, Netherlands
2004: dissolved, main programmes moved to IFPRI
CGIAR also organises a number of inter-Center initiatives and Systemwide Programmes (SP), and Challenge Programmes (CP). The Initiatives and SPs cover cross-Center issues. The CPs are time-bound, independently-governed programs of high-impact research, executed in a partnership among a wide range of institutions. Currently there are three in operation: the Generation Challenge Programme, Harvest Plus and Water and Food.
[edit] Notes
^ Establishment of CGIAR - see Mark Dowie, American Foundations: An Investigative History, Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2001, (p.114)
[edit] External links
Official website
Generation Challenge Programme
HarvestPlus Challenge Programme
CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food
Institutional Learning and Change (ILAC)
Central Advisory Service on Intellectual Property
ICT-KM: the CGIAR program on ICT and Knowledge Management
CGIAR Systemwide Program on Collective Action and Property Rights (CAPRi)
[hide]
v • d • e
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Centers
International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) · Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) · International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) · International Potato Center (CIP) · International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) · International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM) · International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) · International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) · International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) · International Water Management Institute (IWMI) · International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) · International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) · Bioversity International · International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) · West Africa Rice Development Association (WARDA)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consultative_Group_on_International_Agricultural_Research"
Categories: Agriculture organizations Rockefeller Foundation World Bank Agricultural research institutes
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Management of the Insect Pests of Rice

Management of the Insect Pests of Rice
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Rice Water Weevil • Rice Stink Bug • Grasshoppers • Grape Colaspis • Armyworms • Chinch Bug • Rice Stalk Borers • Billbugs • Rice Seed Midges • Aphids
In general, the rice crop in Arkansas does not suffer large losses from insects each year. However, moderate to severe insect losses do occur in individual rice fields each year. The most important pests of Arkansas rice are the rice water weevil and the rice stink bug. During the years 2000 and 2001, the rice stink bug populations were very high and caused significant damage. Grape colaspis, rice stalk borers, billbugs, rice seed midges, chinch bugs, fall armyworms, short-horned grasshoppers and aphids are present in most fields and occasionally cause damage.
Rice Water Weevil
Biology and Description
The rice water weevil overwinters as an adult in accumulated leaf litter in well-drained wooded areas, bunch grasses and other sheltered places. The small (1/8 inch) brown beetles begin to emerge from overwintering in late April and continue until early June. They are attracted to water, colonize rice fields strongly after flood and often are found in higher densities near levees where water is deeper and plant stands are thinner.
Adults fly about in the early evening and early morning. Feeding adults produce narrow, linear scars on the rice leaves. Adults may move into fields and cause scars by feeding prior to flood, but eggs are not laid until fields are flooded. Female rice water weevils swim from plant to plant and deposit eggs in the leaf sheaths below the water surface. Peak egg laying usually occurs 1-2 weeks after flooding.
The eggs are small (1/32 inch), white, elongate and slightly curved. They hatch in 4-9 days (depending on temperature). The white larvae are aquatic and require water saturated soils to survive. Newly hatched larvae feed in the leaf sheath for a short time, exit, sink to the soil surface and locate rice roots on which to feed. The larvae are tiny (1/32 inch long) when first hatched, but quickly grow through four larval stages to 3/16 inch in about four weeks. When the larvae become fully grown, they build water-tight, oval mud cells in which they pupate. They emerge as adults after spending 5-10 days in the pupal stage.
The adults of the first in-field generation begin emerging about five weeks after flooding. They may continue to emerge for several weeks. The life cycle ranges from 35 to 65 days, and adults and some larvae can be found in reproductive stages of the rice crop. These first-generation adults feed on the rice leaves and can occasionally be found on rice heads. No economic damage is done by adults on rice heads. A small number of adults will lay eggs in young or old rice fields. By late August, rice water weevil movement to overwintering sites is strongly underway.
Damage
The damage from rice water weevil is caused by larval feeding on or in the roots of rice plants. Normally, the window of time during which economic loss occurs begins as adults move into fields soon after flood. Occasionally, rainy weather floods rice fields prior to flooding by the farmer. When this happens rice water weevils may move to fields and lay eggs before the farmer floods a field.
The leaf scarring produced by adult feeding does not cause yield losses. Rather, it is an indication that adults are present and is used to make decisions about use and timing of insecticides.
Management
Preventative Insecticide Treatments
Preventive treatments, such as a seed treatment insecticide, should be used on fields which have had historically severe rice water weevil problems. ICON® seed treatment is very effective and will give season-long control of rice water weevil larvae. ICON is available only from dealers who have been licensed to apply this seed treatment insecticide.
Foliar Insecticide Treatments for Control of Adults and Eggs
The key to preventing damage by rice water weevils is use of appropriate scouting techniques in a timely manner. Begin scouting rice 3 to 5 days post-flooding. Begin sampling at least 6 feet past levee furrows. Inspect only the newest unfurled leaf (youngest leaf) for leaf scarring. Check 40 plants at each field stop. Accumulate the number of leaves with feeding scars and compare your accumulated total and stop number in Table 1. When the number of plants with feeding scars, for the sample number you are on, is lower than the number in the Don’t Treat column, stop scouting and do not treat. When the number of plants with feeding scars, for the stop number you are on, is higher than the number in the Treat column, stop scouting and treat. If the number of feeding scars you found, for the sample number you are on, falls between that in the Don’t Treat column and the Treat column, keep sampling.
The insecticide Karate® Z is labeled and is effective, if properly timed, for control of rice water weevil adults. The insect growth regulator Dimilin® 2L is labeled and will prevent rice water weevil eggs from hatching. Dimilin must be present on the foliage and/or in the water to be effective.
Leaf-Feeding Scar Scouting Method
1. First, examine the youngest leaves of seedling rice for feeding scars, beginning within three to five days after flooding. If a field requires more than five days to flood, scout the area flooded during the first three days and then scout the area flooded during the next two to three days.
2. Inspect the youngest leaf on 40 rice plants at each stop. Check plants out in the bay area at least 6 feet from levees and avoid areas with a thin stand. Record number of plants with scars on the new leaf.
3. Make the decision to treat or not to treat after each stop by using Table 1. If you cannot decide after five stops, begin treatment on upward trend or rescout field in four or five days.

Table 1. Treatment Levels for Rice Water Weevil Using the Leaf Feeding Scar Method1
Stop Number3
Total Number of Plants With Feeding Scars on New Leaves2
Don't Treat Stop Scouting When Total is Less Than
No Decision4 Keep Scouting When Total is
Treat Stop Scouting When Total is More Than
1
ND5
Between
40
2
11
Between
56
3
28
Between
72
4
44
Between
89
5
61
Between
105
6
78
Between
122
7
94
Between
139
8
111
Between
156
9
128
Between
173
10
145
Between
189
1 Best results when used within 7 days after first flooding.2 Inspect youngest leaf on 40 rice plants at each stop out in the bay at least 6 feet from levee.3 Total number of leaf scars should be accumulated (Example: stop 1, plus stop 2, etc.)4 If a decision is not reached within a reasonable number of stops, either reinspect field in 4 to 5 days or follow trend. (Example: Treat if totals progressively move toward the treat level.)5 No decision can be made - continue scouting.
Scouting for Larvae
No insecticides are available for post-flood larval control. However, fields can be sampled to determine if larvae are the cause of unusual growth or color. Fields can be sampled from 14 to 35 days post-flood by taking core samples from the soil in rice fields. Cores should be 4 inches in diameter and should be taken to a depth of 4 inches in silt loam soils and at 2 to 3 inches in heavy clay soils. Randomly sample at least five locations per field or in an affected area by taking a core sample at each location. Vigorously wash core samples through a screen (a screen-bottomed bucket is helpful in washing). Count the larvae on the screen or immerse the bucket in water and count the larvae as they float to the surface of the water. The economic damage level is 10 or more larvae per core sample. If mostly small larvae (1/8 inch) are found, more damage can be expected. If mostly large larvae are found (3/16 inch or larger) most of the damage has already been done. In this case, root pruning has already occurred and an application of 25-30 lbs/A of nitrogen to stiff-strawed varieties may be of benefit.
Scouting for Larvae
1. Fourteen to 35 days after flooding is the ideal time to use this method of scouting.
2. For counting larvae, you need a core sampler four inches in diameter and four inches deep and a screen-bottom bucket for washing the sample.
3. Randomly sample five places in the field. Wash soil through screen-bottom bucket and count larvae as they float to water surface.
4. The economic damage level is 10 larvae or more per core sample.
Other Management Options for Controlling Rice Water Weevil Larvae
Draining and allowing the soil to dry until cracks form about 2 weeks after flood is an option that can be used to control rice water weevil larvae. However, growers using this technique risk loss of nitrogen fertilizer, increased weed problems, increased mosquito populations, increased risk of rice blast infection and delayed crop maturity. In addition, they incur the cost of reflooding fields.
Due to the availability of pre-emergence herbicides, flooding of drill-seeded rice can be delayed for up to one additional week. This reduces the damage rice water weevils can cause because the crop root system is allowed to become larger and better developed before the larvae begin feeding.
Continuously flooded or pin-point flooded, water-seeded rice is normally under more intensive rice water weevil pressure than drill seeded rice because adult weevils begin moving into it as soon as the rice seedlings emerge from the water. Normally, larger populations develop on water-seeded rice. Weevils colonize water-seeded rice earlier and they feed for a longer time. ICON treated seed should be considered for use on these fields. If an insecticidal seed treatment such as ICON is not used, continuously flooded or pin-point flood, water seeded rice should be scouted very carefully for rice water weevil, and foliar insecticides should be applied as needed.
Table 2. Insecticides for Control of Rice Water Weevil

Formulation / Acre
Acres / Gallon
Adulticides Karate Z 2.08 CS*
1.92 - 2.56 oz
67 - 50
Fury 1.5 EC*
12 - 16 oz
10.7 - 8
Ovicide / Sterilant Dimilin 2L*
12 - 16 oz
10.7 - 8
Larvicides ICON Seed Treatment
0.025 to 0.05 lb ai / arce
Applied to seed
* Apply Dimilin, Karate and Fury within 10 days after permanent flood on drill seeded rice and 7 days after on water seeded rice.
Rice Stink Bug
Biology and Description
The rice stink bug adult is a small, tan, shield- shaped insect about 3/8-1/2 inch long which produces a strong odor when disturbed. Rice stink bugs can be distinguished from other similar insects by the forward-pointing spines on the segment behind the head. Adults move to leaf litter and bunch grasses to find hibernation sites in early October, and they emerge from over-wintering in late April or early May. Egg laying begins soon after emergence. Light green, barrel-shaped eggs are laid in clusters of 10 to 40 eggs placed in double rows on the leaves and seed heads of host plants. Nymphs hatch about five days after the eggs are laid and shed their skins five times before becoming adults. The nymphal stage lasts 15-28 days. Nymphs are bright red with black markings at first, and then become tan colored with intricate black and red markings on the abdomen. The period from egg to adult ranges from 20-33 days. Adults live about 28 days during the summer, and four to five generations are produced per year. Barnyardgrass, bearded sprangletop, broadleaf signalgrass, dallisgrass and crabgrass are the primary non-crop hosts of rice stink bug.
Damage
As rice seed heads emerge and the grain begins to fill, rice stink bugs move into fields from grassy areas. They are generally more numerous at field margins. Rice stink bugs damage the rice crop by piercing the developing grain with their mouthparts and sucking out the juices. If kernels are in the pre-milk stage, rice stink bug feeding stops kernel development resulting in lost grain. Similarly, stink bugs feeding on milk stage grain may remove the entire contents of the seed causing grain loss. But, as the crop moves into the dough stage, a smaller portion of the seed contents are removed. Stink bug damage to milk or dough stage rice causes shriveled kernels, or a chalky, discolored area on the rice grain called “pecky” rice.
Management
The preferred sampling tool for rice stink bug is a 15-inch diameter sweep net. Sweep nets can be made or purchased from entomological supply companies (your county agent can help with instructions or supplies).
Begin scouting fields when 75 percent of rice panicles have emerged. Scout once or twice a week through harvest. Sweep rice panicles in 180 degree arcs as you walk through the field. Ten consecutive 180 degree sweeps are considered a sampling unit. Sample 10 or more randomly selected sites in each field and calculate the average number of rice stink bugs per 10 sweeps.
Beginning at 75 percent panicle emergence and for two weeks thereafter, an insecticide should be applied for rice stink bug control when infestations reach an average of five or more rice stink bugs (adults and nymphs)/10 sweeps. During the third and fourth weeks after 75 percent panicle emergence (milk and soft dough stage), apply an insecticide for rice stink bugs when infestations reach an average of 10 or more adults and nymphs/10 sweeps. For larger acres and infestations at near threshold levels, the number of 10 sweep samples may need to be increased to increase your confidence that a correct decision is being made.
The best time of day to sweep sample for rice stink bugs is early in the morning, about the time the dew dries. When sampling, the field margins should be avoided.
Table 3. Insecticides for Control of Rice Stink Bug
Insecticide
Formulation per Acre
Acres per Gallon
Days to Harvest
Fury 1.5EC
4.3 ox
29.8
14
Karate Z 2.08 SC
1.6-2.56 ox
50-80
21
Malathion 57% 8EC
1/2 -1 pt
8 - 16
7
Methyl Parathion 4EC
1 pt
8
15
Penncap-M 2EC
2 pts
4
15
Sevin 80S
1 1/4 - 1 7/8 lbs
---
14
Sevin XLR (4L)
2 - 3 pts
2.7 - 4
14
Treatment Levels: The two weeks following 75 percent panicle emergence, treat when five or more stink bugs are found per 10 sweeps. During milk and hard dough stages (3 - 4 weeks after 75 percent panicle emergence) treat when 10 or more bugs are found per 10 sweep sample.
Grasshoppers
Several grasshopper species attack rice. The most common is the meadow grasshopper which has antennae longer than the body and is green in color. This grasshopper is usually about 7/8 to 1 1/8 inches long, feeds on rice leaves and anthers (male flower parts), but causes little damage to rice yields or quality.
The differential grasshopper is larger (1 1/4-1 1/2 inches long) than the meadow grasshopper and is light brown to tan or yellow in color. Differential grasshopper is often a more serious pest of rice. This grasshopper has antennae shorter than the body length and dark chevron-like markings on the sides of the hind (jumping) legs. These grasshoppers
generally move into rice fields from surrounding fields, pastures and non-crop areas as the grasses they feed on begin to dry up. Adult differential grasshoppers feed on the newly emerged panicles and stems of rice plants. When rice stems are attacked before or during panicle emergence, white or “blasted” heads can occur.
Treat seedling rice when grasshopper populations reach one or more per square foot. Treat during panicle emergence when grasshoppers are seen and stem or panicle damage can be found. After heads have emerged, treat when 10 or more grasshoppers per 100 seed heads are seen. If one or more grass-hoppers per square foot can be found on field borders, treatment of the field borders is justified to keep grasshoppers from moving into fields.
Table 4. Insecticides for Control of Grasshoppers
Insecticide
Formulation per Acre
Acres per Gallon
Days to Harvest
Karate Z 2.08 SC
1.6 - 2.26 oz
50 - 80
21
Malathion 57% EC
1 pt
8
7
Methyl Parathion 4EC
1/2 - 1 pt
8 - 16
15
Penncap-M 2EC
1 - 2 pts
4 - 8
15
Sevin 80S
1 1/4 - 1 7/8 lbs

14
Sevin XLR (4L)
2 - 3 pts
2.7 - 4
14
Treatment Level: Treat when damage is evident. Border treatment may be beneficial
Grape Colaspis (lespedeza worm)
The larva of grape colaspis can cause damage to seedling rice in Arkansas as they feed on roots and seeding rice plants in fields grown under soybean (or other legume crop) rice rotation. The larvae are small (1/8-1/6 inch long), white-colored grubs. Adult grape colaspis beetles are small (about 1/6 inch long), oval shaped, tan beetles with distinctive grooved longitudinal lines on the wing covers. The larvae overwinter 6-8 inches below the soil surface then move to near the soil surface in the spring and feed on the developing seedlings. The adult beetles are common from mid- to late-summer in fields of soybeans, clover, timothy and other legumes. Mating and egg laying occurs in legumes from mid-summer through late summer (two generations per year). The eggs are laid in the soil around the roots of legume host plants, where they hatch in 6-9 days. Second generation larvae feed then migrate deep into the soil to spend the winter.
Rice seedling damage occurs as rice is planted following soybeans and overwintering grape colaspis larvae girdle the underground stem leaving only a thread-like connection between the seed and the above-ground plant. Above-ground symptoms are stunted, yellowed plants. Damaged plants are susceptible to drought stress and will die during dry periods. Stand loss can be severe under drought conditions when populations of grape colaspis larvae are high. Grape colaspis infestations are most often associated with silt loam soils that have a somewhat sandy texture. Fields with heavy clay soils seldom have grape colaspis damage. Most of the damage is seen between germination and the two leaf stage.
Spring tillage may produce considerable larval mortality if grape colaspis larvae are near the soil surface when fields are tilled. Flushing will allow damaged plants to recuperate and is a recommended practice. ICON seed treatment has been found to give effective control of grape colaspis in rice.
Armyworms
Two armyworm species commonly infest Arkansas rice fields, armyworm (true armyworm) and fall armyworm. Larvae are either green or brown but have a distinctive pattern of longitudinal stripes – a dark stripe along each side and a broad stripe along the back.
True armyworm leaf feeding occurs along the borders of rice and wheat fields. Growers should observe rice fields located adjacent to wheat fields and watch for movement of armyworms from wheat into rice. Occasionally, all above-ground rice foliage is consumed. But, if the growing point is not damaged, the seedlings will recover if soil moisture is adequate. However, crop maturity in the affected area will be delayed. Insecticide applications on field borders may be justified when armyworms are numerous.
Fall armyworms are striped grey-green caterpillars with dark brown to black heads and a preference for feeding on grasses. They can appear in large numbers fairly suddenly during August and September after the grey marked adult moths have moved into fields and field borders. The female moths lay their eggs in masses of 50 to 300 eggs each on the leaves of the host plants. The egg masses hatch and the larvae disperse through the rice. The larval life is about 20 days. The caterpillars feed on rice leaves and occasionally on the seed stalks and heads. Most of the leaf and grain loss occurs when larvae are 1 1/4 to 1 1/2 inches long (the last 4 or 5 days of the larval life). Large amounts of leaf loss can occur when populations are large. Additionally, grain loss may occur if the caterpillars begin to cut rice heads.
Table 5. Insecticides for Control for Armyworms
Insecticide
Formulation per Acre
Acres per Gallon
Days to Harvest
Karate Z 2.08 CS
1.6 - 2.56oz
50 - 80
21
Methyl Parathion 4EC Penncap-M 2EC
1 pt2 pts
84
1515
Treatment Level: 6 or more small worms per square foot, and/or flag leaf damage head feeding or head cutting is occurring.
Comments: Methyl Parathion or Malathion can be safely applied 7 days before or after propanil is applied. Application of propanil and methyl or Malathion within a shorter period of time will cause severe leaf burn.
Chinch Bug
Chinch bug adults are small (1/6 inch) black bugs which have white wings marked with a small black triangle near the outer edge. The adults overwinter in weedy and brushy areas. They remain in these areas until daytime temperatures reach about 70°F for several hours during the day. They then crawl up grass stems and take flight. Many of these adult chinch bugs find fields of small grain or patches of winter grasses where they feed and lay eggs. The eggs are laid behind the leaf collars or on the roots of these host grasses. Females lay about 200 eggs over a period of 3 weeks to 1 month. The eggs hatch into active red bugs (nymphs) which become darker as they grow. They become adults in 30-40 days.
Chinch bugs in rice can be found feeding on roots when the soil cracks around rice plants prior to flooding. Flooding will move chinch bugs out of the soil and onto the plants but will not prevent damage.
Table 6 . Insecticides for Control of Chinch Bug
Insecticide
Formulation per Acre
Acres per Gallon
Days to Harvest
Karate Z 2.08 SC
1.6 - 2.56 oz
50 - 80
21 - 281
Methyl Parathion 4EC
1 pt
8
15
Penncap-M 2EC
2 pts
4
15
Sevin 80S
1 1/4 - 1 7/8 lbs
---
14
1 21 days if 3.28 oz or less is applied, 28 days if 3.28 to 6.56 oz is applied.
Treatment Level: Treat when chinch bugs are causing stand reductions.
ICON will suppress chinch bugs.
Rice Stalk Borers
Rice stalk borer larvae have been found in practically all rice production areas of Arkansas. Rice stalk borers are occasional pests of rice and are one of the causes of “white heads,” “blank heads” or “white flags.” The small, tan adult moth has a sprinkling of tiny black dots on the forewings, white hind wings and a pointed structure coming off the front of the head. Eggs are deposited in clusters of flattened eggs and resemble fish scales. About 10-50 eggs are laid per cluster on rice foliage.
The caterpillars hatch in 3-7 days and feed about 25 days before pupating. The larvae are yellowish white and are marked with a longitudinal brown stripe and a fainter brown stripe below it, both of which run the length of the body. The larvae eat a hole in the stem just below the panicle or behind leaf sheaths and then hollow out the stalk, moving downward as they increase in size. Infested plants are normally at field edges, levees and in areas with thin stands. Large-stemmed varieties and late-seeded fields are more prone to damage. Larvae overwinter in stubble and pupate in the spring. The pupa is brown, tapers to a point and is enclosed in a heavy web inside the stem.
Timely destruction of rice stubble helps reduce populations. Normally, populations are not large enough to cause economic damage. ICON seed treatment is labeled for control of rice stalk borers and will reduce the number of whiteheads by 40 to 70 percent.
Billbugs
Billbugs are another of the insects which can cause “white heads” or “white flags” in rice. The female weevil chews a small cavity near the base of the plant and lays a single egg in it. The egg hatches and the legless, brown-headed, c-shaped grub feed in the stem and hollow it out about 2 inches above and below the soil surface. The white head is the result of the larval feeding which disrupts the movement of water and nutrients. Billbug damage is often limited to levees or unflooded areas of rice fields since the grubs cannot survive flooded conditions. Billbug damaged “white-heads” break off easily near the soil surface when pulled gently. Billbug damage is not of economic importance in properly flooded fields, but levees can be severely damaged.
Rice Seed Midges
The larvae of Chironomid midges (Genera, Tanytarsus and Chironomus) are called rice seed midges or bloodworm larvae. These aquatic larvae of gnat-like flies can become abundant in flooded rice fields. The female flies lay their eggs on the water surface. The larvae move to the bottom and construct tubes of silk, mud and plant fragments. The midge larvae then damage rice by feeding on the sprouts of submerged germinating rice seeds or entering the seed and feeding before the seedling can emerge. Water-seeded rice seedlings are vulnerable to rice seed midge damage from seedling through the 3-inch- tall seedling stage. Dry-seeding, delaying flood, draining water-seeded fields, increasing seeding rates and use of pre-sprouted seeds for quick seedling establishment can help reduce rice seed midge damage. ICON seed treatment is recommended for control of rice seed midges.
Aphids
Adults are small, oval, soft-bodied insects with or without wings. Near the tip of the abdomen, aphids have a pair of tube-like structures called cornicles. Two species, the greenbug and the bird cherry-oat aphid have been reported in rice. The greenbug has a pale green or yellowish-green body, pale green legs with dark tips, a dark green stripe down the center of the abdomen and pale green cornicles with black tips. The bird cherry-oat aphid has a purplish-green to dark purple body, legs with black tips, cornicles with black tips, and at the base of the cornicles is a reddish-orange spot across the bottom half of the abdomen.
Aphids have piercing-sucking mouthparts and feed on plant liquids. The toxin which the greenbug introduces into plants is a component of the saliva it injects while feeding. The toxin causes yellowing of leaves, and small plants may die. Rice plants with one to two leaves have been killed with only two or three greenbugs present per plant. Two or three greenbugs per plant on larger plants caused leaves to turn yellow, but the plants did not die. Little or no symptoms of damage and no dead plants have been seen when bird cherry-oat aphids were found feeding on rice plants.
Experience has shown that insecticide applications are justified when two to three greenbugs per plant occur on rice in the one to two leaf stage. The insecticides Karate Z and methyl parathion are recommended for control of aphids in rice.